Health Science

Health Science

1. Health Science is an applied science that refers to the body of knowledge applicable in the practice of clinical health care and population health.
   What Is Health Science?
   https://www.coveredca.com/No plastic water bottles in freezers.. ENVIRONMENT
   
   No plastic wrap in microwaves.
   Dioxin chemical causes cancer, especially breast cancer.
   Dioxins are highly poisonous to cells in our bodies. Don't freeze plastic bottles with water in them as this releases dioxins from the plastic. Recently the Wellness Program Manager at Castle Hospital , was on a TV program to explain this health hazard.
   He talked about dioxins and how bad they are for us. He said that we should not be heating food in the microwave using plastic containers.....
   This especially applies to foods that contain fat.
   He said that the combination of fat, high heat and plastic releases dioxin into the food.
   Instead, he recommends using glass, such as Pyrex or ceramic containers for heating food... You get the same result, but without the dioxin..
   So, such things as TV dinners, instant soups, etc., should be removed from their containers and heated in something else.
   Paper isn't bad but you don't know what is in the paper. It's safer to use tempered glass, such as Pyrex, etc.
   He reminded us that a while ago some of the fast food restaurants moved away from the styrene foam containers to paper. The dioxin problem is one of the reasons....
   Also, he pointed out that plastic wrap, such as Cling film, is just as dangerous when placed over foods to be cooked in the microwave
   As the food is nuked, the high heat causes poisonous toxins to actually melt out of the plastic wrap and drip into the food.
   Cover food with a paper towel instead.
   In this issue Major Depressive Disorder (major depression) – a combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy once-pleasurable activities 
   Dysthymic Disorder (Dysthymia) – long-term (two years or longer) but less severe symptom that may not disable a person, but can prevent one from functioning normally or feeling well
   Psychotic Depression – when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some form of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations, and delusions.
   Postpartum Depression – when a new mother develops a major depressive episode within one month after delivery.
   Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – the onset of a depressive illness during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight.
   Depression (cont’d)
   Bipolar Disorder (manic-depressive illness) – cycling mood changes from extreme highs to extreme lows.
   Symptoms:
   Persistent sad, anxious or “empty” feelings
   Feelings of hopelessness and/or pessimism
   Feelings of guilt, worthlessness and/or helplessness
   Irritability, restlessness Loss of interest in activities or hobbies once pleasurable
   Fatigue and decreased energy Difficulty concentrating, remembering details and making decisions
   Insomnia, early-morning wakefulness, or excessive sleeping Overeating,or appetite loss
   Thoughts of suicide, suicide attempts
   Persistent aches or pains, headches, cramps,or digestive problems that do not ease even with treatment
   There is no single known cause of depression – it’s the combination of genetic, biochemical, environmental, and psychological factors
   Depression is a disorder of the brain
   Treatment: medication, psychotherapy (talk therapy), electroconvulsive therapy (shock therapy)Source National Institute of Mental Health
   http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/03/17/scientists-find-bacteria-where-it-isn-t-supposed-to-be-the-brain.html
   
   http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/summary.shtml
   http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/03/17/scientists-find-bacteria-where-it-isn-t-supposed-to-be-the-brain.html
   http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/summary.shtml
   Defining Overweight and Obesity
   Overweight and obesity are both labels for ranges of weight that are greater than what is generally considered healthy for a given height.
   The terms also identify ranges of weight that have been shown to increase the likelihood of certain diseases and other health problems.
   Definition for Adult
   Overweight and obesity ranges are determined by using weight and height to calculate a number called the “body mass index” (BMI).
   BMI Considered & lt;
   18.5 to 24.9 Healthy weight
   25.0 to 29.9 Overweight
   30 or higher Obese
   Assessing Health Risk Associated with Obesity
   The individual’s waist circumference (because abdominal fat is a predictor of risk for obesity-related diseases).
   Other risk factors the individual has for diseases and conditions associated with obesity (for example, high blood pressure or physical inactivity).
   Since the mid-seventies, the prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased sharply for both adults and children.
   Being overweight or obese increases the risk of many diseases and health conditions, including the following:
   * Hypertension * Osteoarthritis
   
   * Hyperlipidemia * Sleep apnea
   * Type 2 diabetes * Some cancers (breast,
   * Coronary heart disease endometrial, colon)
   * Stroke
   
   * Gallbladder disease
   * Osteoarthritis
   * Sleep apnea and respiratory problems
   * Some cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon)
   Contributing Factors to Obesity
   Overall there are a variety of factors that play a role in obesity. This makes it a complex health issue to address.
   Body weight is the result of genes, metabolism, behavior, environment, culture, and socioeconomic status.
   Obesity is a result of energy imbalance over a long period of time.
   Economic Consequence for Obesity
   Morbidity costs are defined as the value of income lost from decreased productivity, restricted activity, absenteeism, and bed days.
   Mortality costs are the value of future income lost by premature death.
   In 1998 aggregate adult medical expenditures attributable to overweight and obesity was estimated to be between $51.5 billion and $78.5 billion
   Prevalence of Overweight Among US Children & Adolescents Aged 2-19 yrs old
   Contributing Factors to Childhood Obesity
   The imbalance between calories consumed and calories used can result from the influences and interactions of a number of factors, including genetic, behavioral, and environmental factors.
   http://www.mentalhealth.com/dis/p20-ps01.html
   Poverty-Obesity Paradox
   A newly appreciated paradox has been described that links poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition to obesity.
   This paradoxical condition exists because many of the diets of people living in poverty have adequate Calories to meet or exceed their energy requirements, but lack the dietary quality needed to promote optimal health and prevent chronic disease.
   Malnutrition: Failure to achieve nutrient requirements, which can impair physical and/or mental health. It may result from consuming too little food or a shortage or imbalance of key nutrients.
   Food insecurity: The inability to acquire or consume an adequate quality or sufficient quantity of food in socially acceptable ways, or the uncertainty that one will be able to do so.In the Life of Health Science
   Definition
   Nutrition is the science that investigates the relationships between physiological function, health, and the food we eat.
   Characteristics of a Healthy Diet
   Provides adequate energy, nutrients, and fiber to maintain health and essential body functions.Moderate in quantity.
   Balanced (combination of foods from different groups)
   Varied (eat a lot of different foods each day)
   Calorie = A unit of measure that indicates the amount of energy obtained from a particular food. ( In chemistry, 1 cal is the amount of energy required to raise 1 g of H2O by 1 degree celsius. A nutritional calorie is actually a kilocalorie).
   Proteins
   Proteins are made from peptides, or chains of amino acids.
   Whenever you consume proteins, your body breaks them down into amino acids.
   Dietary protein that supplies all of the essential amino acids is called “complete protein”.
   Protein from animal products is usually complete.
   Protein from plant products is usually “incomplete”. (lacking in 1 or more essential amino acid)
   Plant sources of proteins:(1) legumes (beans, peas, and soy),
   You can combine plant sources with animal products (meat or dairy) in order to obtain your essential amino acids.The average American consumers greater than 100g protein/ day, 70% of which comes from high-fat animal flesh and dairy products.
   The recommended daily protein intake is ~63 g for an average-sized male and ~ 50 g for an average-sized woman.
   For a 2000-calorie diet, about 10% of calories should come from protein.Calculate your RDA
   RDA = recommended daily allowance
   #1 Determine your body weight.
   #2 Convert pounds to kilgrams
   #3 Multiply by 0.8 g/kg (average adult RDA) to get an RDA in kilograms per day.
   CarbohydratesCarbohydrates are quickly metabolized and converted to glucose, the fuel for the body’s cells.
   Basic unit is a monosaccharide, a molecule made of C, H, O. Example: glucose, fructose
   Disaccharides contain two molecules of sugar Example: lactose.
   Polysaccharides contain multiple molecules of sugar.Two major categories of carbohydrates: simple and complex.
   Simple carbs are usually mono- or disaccharides and are therefore broken down easily and quickly absorbed. Examples: candy, fruit juice.
   Complex carbs are larger molecules (formed by long chains of sugars) and are digested more slowly. Two major forms are starches/fiber or cellulose. Examples: pasta, grains, cereals, dark leafy veggies.
   Fatcomposed of Carbon and Hydrogen. Triglycerides are the most common form of fat in the body. Excess calories consumed are converted to TGs and stored as body fat.
   Saturated fats consist of fatty acid chains with few double bonds. The more saturated a fat, the more Solid (butter)Unsaturated fats consist of fatty acid chains with many double bonds. (oil)
   Unsaturated fat come from plants and include most vegetable oil.
   Monounsaturated fat (one double bond) and polyunsaturated fat (many double bonds) refer to the number of double bonds in the FA chains.
   Olive oil is a monounsaturated fat and seems to lower LDL levels and increase HDL.
   Trans Fat
   Why are foods processed? For what purpose?Trans fatty acids seem to raise cholesterol levels, and have been implicated in certain types of cancer.
   Cholesterol
   10. Access to health care Vitamins are essential organic compounds that promote growth and reproduction and help maintain life and health.
   Cholesterol accounts for about 5 % of body fat and can accumulate in the inner walls of arteries (plaque), leading to constriction to blood flow.
   Lipoproteins: composed of protein, triglycerides and cholesterol (in varying proportions) that facilitate the transport of cholesterol in the blood.
   

   http://my.barackobama.com/This-Decision

   
   Thursday, June 28th, 2012
   Health Science  Introduction/Definition What is Health?
   Health – a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
   Health Promotion – a process of enabling people to increase control over their health and its determinant and thereby improve their health.
   Source: World Health Organization
   Health Education – a process comprising of consciously constructed opportunities for learning and communication designed to improve health information, health literacy, health knowledge and developing life skills which are conducive to the promotion of an individual and community’s health.
   Source: World Health Organization
   Source: World Health Organization
   Mortality – the proportion of death to population
   Three Levels of Prevention
   Primary Prevention
   Tertiary Prevention
   Three Levels of Prevention
   Source: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
   Three Levels of Prevention
   Secondary prevention - aims at preventing an existing illness or injury from progressing to long-term disability. Examples include newborn screening for metabolic disorders followed by dietary restrictions to prevent damage to the nervous system and effective emergency medical care for head injury.
   Source: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
   Three Levels of Prevention
   Source: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
   Leading Health Indicators
   1. Physical activity
   8. Environmental quality
   9. Immunization
   10. Access to health care
   Health Models
   Health Belief Model (Janz & Becker)
   Stages of Change (Prochaska & DiClemente)
   Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
   Community Organizing (Rappaport)
   Social Marketing (Novelli, Lefebvre, & Rochlin)
   Health Belief Model
   Perceived Susceptibility
   Perceived Severity
   Perceived Benefits
   Perceived Barriers
   Cues to Action
   Self-efficacy
   Health Belief Model
   Perceived Susceptibility – One’s belief regarding the chance of getting a condition
   Perceived Severity – One’s belief of how serious a condition and its consequences are
   Perceived Benefits – One’s belief in the efficacy of the advised action to reduce risk or seriousness of impact
   Health Belief Model
   Perceived Barriers – One’s belief about the tangible and psychological costs of the advised action
   Cues to Action – Strategies to activate one’s “readiness”
   Self-efficacy – One’s confidence in one’s ability to take action
   Stages of Change/Trans Theoretical Model
   Pre-contemplation
   Contemplation
   Preparation
   Action
   Maintenance
   Termination
   Stages of Change/Trans Theoretical Model
   Pre-contemplation – Has no intention to take action within the next six months
   Contemplation – Intends to take action within the next six months
   Preparation – Intends to take action within the next thirty days and has taken some behavioral steps in this direction
   Stages of Change/Trans Theoretical Model
   Action – Has changed over behavior for less than six months
   Maintenance – Has changed over behavior for more than six months
   Termination – No longer succumb to temptation and have total self-efficacy
   Social Cognitive Theory
   Environment
   Situation
   Behavioral Capability
   Expectations
   Expectancies
   Self-control
   Observational Learning
   Reinforcements
   Self-efficacy
   Emotional Coping Responses
   Reciprocal Determinism
   Social Cognitive Theory
   Environment – Factors physically external to the person
   Behavioral Capability – Knowledge and skill to perform a given behavior
   Expectations – Anticipatory outcomes of a behavior
   Social Cognitive Theory
   Expectancies – The values that the person places on a given outcome; incentives
   Self-control – Personal regulation of goal-directed behavior or performance
   Observational Learning – Behavioral acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behavior
   
   Reinforcements – Responses to a person’s behavior that increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence
   Social Cognitive Theory
   Self-efficacy – The person’s confidence in performing a particular behavior and in overcoming barriers to that behavior
   Emotional Coping Responses – Strategies or tactics that are used by a person to deal with emotional stimuli
   Reciprocal Determinism – The dynamic interaction of the person, behavior, and the environment in which the behavior is performed Community Organizing
   Empowerment
   Critical Consciousness
   Community Capacity
   Issue Selection
   Participation and Relevance
   Community Organizing
   Empowerment – Social action process for people to gain mastery over their lives and the lives of their communities
   Price – the assessment of the barriers or costs involved in adopting the behavior for members of the target market.
   Social Marketing
   
   Place – the distribution channel – getting the product in front of the customer – often may be the most important element of the marketing mix.
   Promotion – expectation to voluntarily exchange their resources for a product when aware that the product offers them attractive benefits at a reasonable price and that it is available at a convenient location.
   Critical Consciousness – A consciousness based on reflection and action in making change
   ommunity Capacity – Community characteristics affecting its ability to identify, mobilize, and address problems
   Community Organizing
   Issue Selection – Identifying winnable and specific targets of change that unify and build community strength
   
   Participation and Relevance – Community organizing that “starts where the people are” and engages community members as equals
   
   Social Marketing
   The Four P’s
   Product
   Price
   Place
   Promotion
   Social MarProduct – the degree to which products, services, or ideas can be offered to target market members to increase the likelihood of eliciting a desired behavior.
   Mental Health
   Affects 26.2 % of Americans ages 18 and older; about 1 in 4 adults
   About 57.7 million people
   Main burden of illness is about 6% or 1 in 17
   Leading cause of disability in the US and Canada ages 15 – 44
   
   Many suffer from more than one mental disorder
   Almost half of those with mental disorder meet 2 or more, with severity strongly related to morbidity Accounts for over 15% of burden of disease in established market economies, more than by all cancers.
   Anxiety Disorder
   40 million American adults age 18 years and older; about 18% of the pop.
   Caused by stressful events, unlike mild and brief anxiety
   Last at least 6 months; can get worse if untreated nommonly occur with other mental or physical illness, including alcohol and substance use
   
   Types of Anxiety Disorder:
   Panic Disorder
   Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
   Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
   Social Phobia/Social Anxiety Disorder
   Specific Phobias
   Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
   Panic Disorder
   6 million American, twice as common in women than men
   Characterized by:
   Sudden attacks of terror, pounding heart, sweatiness, weakness, faintness, and dizziness
   During these attacks, people may feel:
   Flush or chilled, hands may tingle or feel numb, nausea, chest pain, or smothering sensation
   Usually produce a sense of unreality, a fear of impending doom or losing control
   Panic Disorder Many sufferers only have one attack
   It is one of the most treatable of all anxiety disorders
   Accompanied by other serious problems; depression, drug use, or alcoholism 
   Symptoms: depression (sadness or hopelessness), changes in appetite or sleep pattterns, low energy, and difficulty concentrating
   Treatment: antidepressant medications, certain types of psychotherapy (counseling), or combination of two
   Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
   2.2 million Americans; men and women equal
   Have persistent, upsetting thoughts (obsession) and use or rituals (compulsions) to control the anxiety. Ironically, most of the time the rituals end up controlling them
   Most people have rituals but people with OCD perform their rituals that interfere with their daily life and it causes distress.
   May run in the family
   Self-medicate with alcohol or drugs Treatment – medications and/or psychotherapy
   Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
   7.7 million Americans, all ages
   Develops after a terrifying ordeal that involved physical harm or the threat of physical harm People with PTSD may startle easily, become emotionally numb (with spouse/lovers), lose interest in things they enjoy, have trouble feeling affectionate, irritable, become more aggressive, or even violent. 
   Some relive the trauma in their sleep/nightmares, called flashbacksAccompanied by depression, substance use, and other anxiety disorders 
   Social Phobias/Social Anxiety Disorder 
   15 million Americans, equal in both men and women
   When people become overwhelmed and excessively self-conscious in everyday social situations. Characteristics: intense, persistent and chronic fear of being watched and judged by others and of doing things that will embarrass them. 
   Interferes with daily life, work, and ordinary activities. Physical symptoms: blushing, profuse sweating, trembling, nausea, and difficulty talking. 
   Often accompanied by other anxiety disorders or depression
   Treatment: psychotherapy or medications
   Specific Phobias
   19.2 million Americans, twice common in women than man.
   An intense fear of something that poses little or no actual danger.
   
   Usually appear in childhood or adolescence and tend to persist into adulthood.
   Some evidence states that they run in family Treatment: psychotherapy
   Types of Phobias 
   Achluophobia- Fear of darkness. Acousticophobia- Fear of noise. Acrophobia- Fear of heights. Automysophobia- Fear of being dirty. Autophobia- Fear of being alone or of oneself. Aviophobia or Aviatophobia- Fear of flying. Atelophobia- Fear of imperfection. Bacteriophobia- Fear of bacteria. Bathophobia- Fear of depth. Batophobia- Fear of heights or being close to high buildings. Bufonophobia- Fear of toads Caligynephobia- Fear of beautiful women. 
   Chiraptophobia- Fear of being touched. Coulrophobia- Fear of clowns. Demophobia- Fear of crowds. (Agoraphobia) Ergophobia- Fear of work.
   Gamophobia- Fear of marriage. Genophobia- Fear of sex.
   Glossophobia- Fear of speaking in public or of trying to speak. Gymnophobia- Fear of nudity. Gynephobia or Gynophobia- Fear of women. Hadephobia- Fear of hell.
   Hominophobia- Fear of men.
   Hypengyophobia or Hypegiaphobia- Fear of responsibility. Kainolophobia or Kainophobia- Fear of anything new, novelty. Lachanophobia- Fear of vegetables. Lockiophobia- Fear of childbirth. Lygophobia- Fear of darkness. Mageirocophobia- Fear of cooking. 
   Mastigophobia- Fear of punishment. Motorphobia- Fear of automobiles.
   Necrophobia- Fear of death or dead things. Noctiphobia- Fear of the night. Nostophobia- Fear of returning home. Novercaphobia- Fear of your step-mother. Odynophobia or Odynephobia- Fear of pain. (Algophobia) 
   Ophidiophobia- Fear of snakes.
   Panophobia or Pantophobia- Fear of everything. Papaphobia- Fear of the Pope. Pedophobia- Fear of children.
   Peniaphobia- Fear of poverty.
   Phasmophobia- Fear of ghosts.
   Philemaphobia or Philematophobia- Fear of kissing. Philophobia- Fear of falling in love or being in love. Plutophobia- Fear of wealth.
   Pocrescophobia- Fear of gaining weight. (Obesophobia) Politicophobia- Fear or abnormal dislike of politicians.
   General Anxiety Disorder
   6.8 million Americans, twice as many women as men
   Going through the day filled with exaggerated worry and tension, even though there is little or nothing to provoke it; the risk is highest between childhood and middle age
   Characteristics: can’t relax, startle easily, and have difficulty concentrating, often, trouble sleeping or staying asleep
   Symptom – fatigue, headaches, muscle tension, muscle aches, difficulty swallowing, trembling, twitching, irritability, sweating, nausea, lightheadedness, frequent bathroom use, out of breath, and hot flashes.
   Maybe genetic
   Often accompanied with other anxiety disorders, depression or substance use; rarely occurs alone. Treatment – medication or cognitive-behavioral therapy, but co-occurring conditions must also be treated with other therapies.
   Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
   3% - 5% of children have been diagnosed; about 2 million children
   
   Difficulty for children to control their behavior and/or pay attention
   Principle characteristics: Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivityBecomes apparent in children in preschool and early school year Children with ADHD face a difficult, but not insurmountable task ahead 
   Three subtypes pf ADHD: Predominantly Hyperactive-impulsive type
   Predominantly inattentive type
   
   Three subtypes of ADHD:
   Predominantly Hyperactive-impulsive type
   Hyperactive children are always on the “go” or always moving, always touching something or playing with whatever is in sight.
   Impulsive- unable to curb their immediate reactions or think before they act. They often yell inappropriate comments, display their emotions without restraint, and act without regard for consequences.
   Predominantly inattentive type
   Have a hard time keeping their minds on any one thing and may get bored with a task only after a few minutes.
   Signs of Inattention:
   Often becoming easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds
   Often failing to pay attention to details and making careless mistakes
   
   Rarely following instructions carefully and completely losing or forgetting things like toys, or pencils, books, and tools needed for a task.
   Often skipping from one uncompleted activity to another.
   Treatment: no single treatment is the answer. Each child needs a personalized treatment plan
   Autism
   Also known as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
   Autism is the deficit in:
   Social interaction Verbal and non-verbal communication
   Repetitive behaviors or interests
   Possible indicators:
   Does not babble, point,or make meaningful gestures by age 1 Does not speak, one word by 16 months 
   Does not combine two words by age 2
   Does not respond to name
   Loses language or social skills 
   Poor eye contact
   Doesn’t seem to know how to play with toys
   Excessively lines up toys or other objects
   Is attached to one particular or or object
   Doesn’t smile At times seems to be hearing impaired
   ______________________________________High-density lipoprotein (HDL): transport cholesterol to the liver for metabolism.
   Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): transport cholesterol to body cells.
   Good vs. Bad Cholesterol
   The actual amount of total cholesterol circulating in the blood is not as important as the proportion of HDL and LDL.
   People with a high percentage of of HDLs appear to be at lower risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
   VitaminsI. Background
   II. Greenhouse Gases
   III. Greenhouse Effect
   IV. Past Climate Change
   V. Recent Climate Changes: Atmosphere, Temperature, Precipitation, Sea Level Changes
   
   VI. Future Climate Change
   VII. Impact of Climate Change: Ecosystem, Health, Agriculture, Polar Region
   VIII. U.S. Role in GHG Emissions
   IX. Kyoto ProtocolX. What you can do
   Background: The Earth's climate has changed many times during the planet's history, with events ranging from ice ages to long periods of warmth.
   Historically, natural factors such as volcanic eruptions, changes in the Earth's orbit, and the amount of energy released from the Sun have affected the Earth's climate.
   Beginning late in the 18th century, human activities associated with the Industrial Revolution have also changed the composition of the atmosphere and therefore very likely are influencing the Earth's climate.
   Greenhouse Gases
   Greenhouse gases (GHG): Gases that exhibit “greenhouse properties”. These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely. When sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface, some of it is reflected back towards space as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere.
   Some of them occur in nature (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide), while others are exclusively human-made (like gases used for aerosols).
   Types of Greenhouse Gases
   Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood products
   Methane (CH4) - emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.Nitrous Oxide (NO2) - emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
   Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6) - emitted from a variety of industrial processes. The Greenhouse Effect   
   GHG allow solar heat to pass through and then trapping it close to the Earth’s surface.
   If the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases rise, the average temperature of the lower atmosphere will gradually increase.
   The Greenhouse Effect: The Mechanism
   Energy from the Sun drives the Earth's weather and climate. The Earth absorbs energy from the Sun, and also radiates energy back into space.
   The Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming solar radiation. The remaining 70% is absorbed (largely by GHG), warming the land, atmosphere and oceans.
   ecause the atmosphere then radiates most of this energy back to the Earth’s surface, our planet is warmer than it would be if the atmosphere did not contain these gases.
   Without this natural "greenhouse effect," temperatures would be about 60ºF lower than they are now, and life as we know it today would not be possible. Past Climate Change 
   The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. From glacial periods (or "ice ages") where ice covered significant portions of the Earth to interglacial periods where ice retreated to the poles or melted entirely - the climate has continuously changed.
   Causes of climate change prior to the Industrial Era (pre-1750) include changes in:
   earth’s orbit sun’s intensityocean currents greenhouse gases
   volcanic eruptions
   Atmosphere Changes during the Last Century
   Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have historically varied as a result of many natural processes (e.g. volcanic activity, changes in temperature, etc).
   However, since the Industrial Revolution humans have added a significant amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and other activities.
   Because greenhouse gases absorb and emit heat, increasing their concentrations in the atmosphere will tend to have a warming effect.
   Aerosals:
   Temperature Changes during the Last CenturySince the mid 1970s, the average surface temperature has warmed about 1°F.
   The Earth’s surface is currently warming at a rate of about 0.32ºF/decade or 3.2°F/century.
   The five warmest years over last century have likely2005, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2006. The top 10 warmest years have all occurred since 1990.
   Precipitation Changes during the Last Century
   Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation.Observations compiled by NOAA's National Climatic Data Center show that over the contiguous U.S., total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent per century since 1900, although there was considerable regional variability. 
   Storm Changes during the Last Century
   There is large natural variability in the intensity and frequency of storms and associated features such as thunderstorms, hail events and tornadoes.To date, there is no long-term evidence of systematic changes in these types of events over the course of the past 100 years.
   Sea Level Changes during the Last CenturySea levels are rising worldwide & along much of the U.S. coast.
   Sea level has risen worldwide approximately 4.8-8.8 inches during the last century.
   Primary factors driving current sea level rise include:
   the expansion of ocean water caused by warmer ocean temperaturesmelting of mountain glaciers and small ice caps to a lesser extent) melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet and the Antarctic Ice Sheet
   Most climate change scenarios project that greenhouse gas concentrations will increase through 2100 with a continued increase in average global temperatures.
   How much and how quickly the Earth's temperature will increase remains unknown given the uncertainty of future greenhouse gas, aerosol emissions and the Earth's response to changing conditions.Future Climate Changes: Temperature 
   Natural influences, like changes in the sun and volcanic activity, may also affect future temperature.
   Even if the composition of today's atmosphere was fixed (which would imply a dramatic reduction in current emissions), surface air temperatures would continue to warm.
   The studies suggest that a portion of the warming associated with past human activity has not yet been realized due to heat being stored in the ocean, and that the Earth is committed to continued warming.
   How will climate change affect ecosystems? Some ecosystems have already been affected by changes in climate. 
   As the climate continues to warm, major changes may occur in ecosystem structure & function, species’ ecological interactions, and species’ geographic ranges, with mostly negative consequences for biodiversity.
   In addition, climate changes such as increased floods and droughts are predicted to increase the risk of extinction for some plant and animal species, many of which are already at-risk due to other non-climate related factors. How will climate change affect human health? 
   The prevalence of some diseases and other threats to human health depend largely on local climate.
   Extremely warm temperatures can lead directly to loss of life or heat-related illness, while less-severe winters could reduce the number of cold-related deaths.
   Climate-related disturbances in ecological systems, such as changes in the range of some parasites, can indirectly affect the incidence of serious infectious diseases.
   How will climate change affect agriculture?
   Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes, such as droughts, floods, and severe storms.
   Some aspects of projected climate change are predicted to increase food production (e.g., longer growing season, increased precipitation), but weather extremes (increased potential for droughts, floods, and heat waves) will likely have adverse effects, so the net effect on agriculture will vary depending on how these factors play out at a regional scale
   How will climate change affect polar regions?Polar regions are expected to warm more than any other parts of the world. 
   In part, this is because ice has greater reflectivity than ocean or land.
   Melting of highly reflective snow and ice reveals darker land and ocean surfaces, which increases absorption of the sun's heat and further warms the planet, especially in those regions.
   Melting due to climate change is expected to reduce the size and extent of the polar ice caps, even after taking into account the potential for more snow and ice due to increased precipitation.
   Summer Arctic Sea Ice Decline Since 1979 U.S. Role in GHG Emission. To put U.S. emissions in a global perspective, the United States, with 5% of the world’s population, is responsible for 25% of global GHG emissions.
   On a per capita basis, U.S. emissions are roughly twice as high as those of the EU and Japan.
   U.S. GHG Emissions- By Gas
   Trends in Vehicle Miles Traveled in the U.S. 1936-2005
   International GHG Emission
   Most of the world's GHG emissions come from a relatively small number of countries.
   The United States, China, and the European Union together accounted for about 50% of global emissions in 2004.
   The eight largest emitters - the United States, China, the European Union, Russia, India, Japan, Germany and Brazil - accounted for more than 70% of global emissions.
   International GHG Emissions Kyoto Protocol
   The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement adopted in December 1997 in Japan, entered into force on February 16, 2005.
   The Protocol sets binding targets for developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, in order to address global warming.
   By ratifying this protocol, industrialized countries have committed to cut their combined emissions to 5% below 1990 levels by 2008 - 2012.Kyoto Protocol 
   Each country that signed the protocol agreed to its own specified target. 
   EU countries are expected to cut their present emissions by 8% and Japan by 5%.
   Some countries with low emissions were permitted to increase them.
   The treaty suffered a massive blow in 2001 when the US, responsible for about quarter of the world's emissions, pulled out. The UN says industrialized countries are now well off target for the end of the decade and predicts emissions 10% above 1990 levels by 2010.
   US President George W Bush pulled out of the Kyoto Protocol in 2001, saying implementing it would gravely damage the US economy. 
   
   Developmental Psychology
   Sexual Behavior in Adolescence & Perceptual Development
    Homosexuality:
   Biological Basis Hypothesis
   Biological Basis Hypothesis
   Homosexuality: Programmed at Birth Hypothesis
   Homosexuality
   Pattern of realization of homosexuality
   May begin in middle childhood
   Homosexual fantasies begin in teen years
   Full awareness and acceptance appear to take place in early adulthood
   Slow process may lead to isolation and peer rejection
   Health and Wellness
   Health in Childhood
   Health Care Needs
   Illnesses and Accidents
   Age and Gender Differences
   Health and Wellness
   Health and Wellness
   Prevalence of Overweight Children and Teens
   Poverty and Health
   Poor children miss more days of school
   The cycle of poverty
   Health and Wellness
   Adolescent Health
   Health Care Issues
   May develop physical symptoms to parental or peer rejection
   Most likely to need medical care for accidents
   Health and Wellness
   Adolescent Health
   Sensation-Seeking
   Desire to experience high levels of arousal
   Increased rates of accidents
   Risky behaviors help teenagers gain peer acceptance and establish autonomy
   Health and Wellness
   Alcohol and Drug Use
   More common in sensation-seekers
   Peers who drink or use drugs seek out others who do the same
   Parental perceptions influence abstinence from drugs and alcohol
   Parents need to take a proactive approach to prevention
   Illicit Drug Use Trends among Teenagers
   Health and Wellness
   Smoking
   12% of adolescents are regular smokers
   30% have tried smoking
   Teenagers already in poor health are likely to smoke
   Health and Wellness
   Smoking
   Peer influences are strong
   Parental influence, especially for mothers and daughters, is important
   Parents who resist smoking tend to have non-smoking adolescents
   Health and Wellness
   Mortality
   Worldwide incidence
   Causes
   United States incidence
   Ethnic causes
   Thinking about Perceptual Development
   Thinking about Perceptual Development
   Nativism
   Most perceptual abilities are inborn
   Empiricism
   Perceptual abilities are learned
   Thinking about Perceptual Development
   Explanations of Perceptual Development
   Thinking about Perceptual Development
   Explanations of Perceptual Development
   Developmental Psychology
   Sensation, Perception,& Cognitive Development
   Sensory Skills
   Seeing
   Visual Acuity
   Tracking
   Color Vision
   Infants’ Tracking Skills
   Sensory Skills
   Hearing and Other Senses
   Auditory acuity
   Detecting locations
   Sensory Skills
   Smelling and tasting
   Newborns respond differentially to 4 of the basic tastes
   1 week old can differentiate between their mothers’ and other women's smells
   Sensations of touch and motion
   May be the best developed sense
   Even the youngest infants are sensitive to touch
   Newborns’ Response to Tastes
   Perceptual Skills
   Depth Perception:
   Perceptual Skills
   Visual Cliff: Gibson and Walk
   Early research on depth perception
   Use of kinetic cues
   Perceptual Skills
   What Babies Look At:
   Pattern Recognition
   Perceptual Skills
   Babies’ Preference for Attractive Faces
   If there is an inborn template that is used as a standard against which faces are compared, how might such a template affect our interactions with others?
   How would researchers determine the degree to which attractiveness affects adults’ perceptions of infants’ faces?
   Why would such research be unable to tell us whether the concept of attractiveness is inborn?
   Perceptual Skills
   Listening: Make fine discriminations among individual sounds
   Speech Perception
   Questions to Ponder
   Nature/nurture issues still abound in child research. Has the research in this chapter swayed your opinion about the influence of nature or nurture on learning in children?  Why or why not?
   Which sense seems the most important for a baby to have to promote survival and promote interaction with others?
   Perceptual Skills
   Combining Information from Several Senses
   Intermodal Perception
   Forming single perception of a stimulus that is based on information from two or more senses
   Possible as early as 1 month; common by 6 months
   Research supports this developmental trend
   Perceptual Skills
   Ignoring Perceptual Information
   The Object Concept
   Object Perception
   Spelke & Kinzler (2007) argue that babies are born with built-in assumptions about objects
   Connected-surface principle
   Baillargeon (2008) argues that strategies for learning are innate and are modified by experience
   Object Perception
   Study of Object Perception
   Object Permanence   
   Object permanence: understanding that objects still exist even when out of view
   Piaget’s stages of development
   Studies of Zambian infants show similar progression of development
   Toddlers’ Understanding of Object Movement
   Perception of
   Social Signals
   Early discrimination of emotional expressions
   Perception of Social Signals
   Early discrimination of emotional expressions
   By 12 months, infants responds to novel situations by “social referencing”
   Cross-cultural studies suggest similarity in facial expressions for basic emotions of fear, happiness, sadness, anger, and disgust
   Infant Responses to Maternal Depression
   How might researchers study whether genetics plays a role in the correlation between maternal and infant depression?
   Based on this discussion, what items might be included in a brief observational checklist that health-care professionals could use to identify problem behaviors in depressed mothers?
   Piaget’s Basic Ideas
   Scheme
   The basic action of knowing, including physical and mental actions
   Schemes build on a small repository of simple sensory or motor schemes, such as taste and sucking
   Organization
   As people act on their environments, an inborn mental process causes them to derive generalizable schemes from specific experiences
   Piaget’s Basic Ideas: Adaptation
   Assimilation
   The process of taking in, of absorbing some event or experience and making it part of a scheme
   Accommodation
   Changing a scheme as a result of new information taken in
   Equilibration
   The process of bringing assimilation and accommodation into balance
   Piaget’s Basic Ideas: Adaptation
   Equilibration leads to 4 stages of cognitive development
   Causes of Cognitive Development
   Sensorimotor Period
   Challenges to Piaget’s Views
   Memory
   Habituation and dishabituation
   Rovee-Collier
   Imitation
   Facial gestures
   Deferred imitation timing
   The Preschool Years
   Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
   Egocentrism: Child sees the world from own perspective and cannot see it from others’ perspectives
   Piaget measured this by the “Three-mountain task”
   Piaget’s Three Mountains Task
   Three Mountain Task
   http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=OinqFgsIbh0
   Developmental Psychology
   From Childhood to Adolescence
   The Preschool Years: Conservation
   Conservation: Understanding that quantity or amount of a substance remains the same even when there are external changes in its shape or arrangement
   Typically, children do not have this understanding until after age 5
   The Preschool Years
   Theories of Mind
   Theories of Mind       
   Influences on Theory of Mind Development
   Child’s theory of mind correlates
   Pretend play and shared pretense
   http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w
   Influences on Theory of Mind Development
   Sibling Advantage
   Language skills
   Cross-cultural research
   False Belief Tasks across Cultures
   Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking
   Neo-Piagetian Theories:  Case
   Age differences
   Operational efficiency
   Neo-Piagetian Matrix Task
   
   
   
   
   
   
   Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking
   Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
   Proposes stages that represent a step towards the child’s internalization of the ways of thinking used by adults in society
   The School-Aged Child
   Piaget’s View of Concrete Operations
   Longitudinal Study of Concrete Operations
   Questions to Ponder
   Thinking about theories and school
   If Piaget is right that the child actively seeks out knowledge, what could schools do to help stimulate learning?
   If Vygotsky is right that learning develops best in social situations, how can schools be designed to use this knowledge to help school-aged children learn better?
   Different Approaches to Concrete Operational Thought
   Different Approaches to Concrete Operational Thought
   Siegler’s Wave Theory
   Adolescence
   Piaget’s View of Formal Operations
   Elkind’s Adolescent Egocentrism
   In what ways might the personal fable and imaginary audience positively influence a teenager’s decisions about risky behaviors such as drug use and unsafe sex? How might they negatively influence such decisions?
   What are the roles of the imaginary audience and the personal fable in adults’ perceptions of themselves?
   Concrete versus Formal Operational Thinking
   Post-Piagetian Work on Adolescent Thought
   Formal Operations and Adolescent Decision Making
   Lewis
   New cognitive abilities alter the ways in which teenagers go about making decisions
   Older children are more focused on the future, on possibilities, and on options
   Performance on Two Formal
   Operations Tasks
   Development of
   Information-Processing Skills
   Memory Span across Age
   Memory Strategies
   Adolescents use multiple strategies to improve memory
   Production deficiency
   Utilization deficiency
   Training
   Specific knowledge
   Development of
   Information-Processing Skills
   Changes in Processing Capacity and Efficiency
   Leading Questions and Children’s Memory
   Suppose when you pick your child up from child care, the teacher tells you that your child hit one of his classmates and asks you to talk to him about it.
   Based on the research regarding young children’s memories, how should you proceed if you want to get the most accurate report possible about the incident from your child?
   Developmental Psychology
   Assessing Intelligence
   Measuring Intellectual Power
   The First IQ Tests
   The Distribution of IQ Scores
   Changes in IQ Scores
   Both maturational and experiential variables influence IQ scores
   Secular trend (Flynn effect)
   Maturational variables attributed to health and nutrition improvements
   Experiential elements increase due to environmental variables”
   Wechsler Intelligence Scale
   for Children-Fourth Edition
   Full Scale IQ score is composed of:
   Modern IQ Tests
   Infant Tests
   Bayley Scales of Infant Development
   Popular Tests: measure verbal and non-verbal problems ranging from very easy to very difficult
   Stanford-Binet V
   Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 4th Edition (WPPSI-IV) for 2½  to 7-year-olds
   Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, 4th Edition (WISC-IV) for 6- to 16-year-olds
   IQ Tests versus Achievement Tests
   Questions to Ponder
   Since IQ scores and achievement test scores are often similar, should IQ scores be used to place children in special needs programs?
   Should achievement tests be used to measure school effectiveness?
   Stability of Test Scores
   Weak correlation between the Bayley Scales and later Stanford-Binet scores
   By age 3, score similarities of IQ tests taken a few years apart are typically high
   The Flynn Effect
   What are some possible alternative explanations for the finding that IQ scores may be falling in some European countries?
   What are the advantages and disadvantages of intelligence tests that include both maturationally loaded and experientially based items?
   What IQ Scores Predict
   Validity
   Whether a test is measuring what it is intended to measure
   Correlations between a child’s IQ and grades or other performance tests– between .45 and .60
   Predictive relationships hold true within each social class and ethnic group
   What IQ Scores Predict
   Explaining Individual Differences in IQ Scores
   Heredity
   Identical twins are more like each other than fraternal twins
   Adopted children IQs are similar to natural parents
   Environment
   Capron and Duyme– French adoptees
   Upper-class families–11 points higher than children reared in lower class families regardless of the social class or education of the natural parents
   IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins
   IQ Correlations
   Family Characteristics and
   IQ Scores
   Protective Factors
   Differences Within Families
   First born children have the highest IQ scores
   Differences are consistent when scores are averaged over many families, but the pattern is much weaker in individual families
   Family Size and IQ
   Family Characteristics and IQ Scores     
   Adoption studies suggest that families make important contributions to children’s intellectual development.
   Family Characteristics and IQ Scores     
   The longer a child lives in poverty, the more negative the effect on IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive functioning.
   Early Interventions and IQ Scores 
   Attunements: Permanent gain over the level of performance the child would show without enrichment
   Head Start
   Descriptions and goals
   Child outcomes
   School Experience and Special Interventions    
   Edward Zigler
   Ramey’s Study of Early Intervention
   (See Figure 7.6)
   Ramey’s Studies of Early Intervention
   Interactions of Heredity
   and Environment
   World-wide studies show that about half the variation in IQ scores within any population is due to heredity
   Reaction Range: Range within upper and lower boundaries of possible functioning established by one’s genes
   Explaining Group Differences in IQ or Achievement Test Scores
   Ethnic Differences: Asians and Asian Americans
   Explaining Group Differences in IQ or Achievement Test Scores
   Racial Differences: African American children consistently score lower than Caucasian children
   Questions to Ponder
   Have you ever experienced a stereotype threat or have you seen peers who have tried to influence others based on stereotypes?
   Explaining Group Differences in IQ or Achievement Test Scores
   Stereotype Threat
   Subtle sense of pressure: Members of a particular group feel when they are attempting to perform well in an area in which their group is characterized by a negative stereotype.
   Cross-Cultural Comparisons
   Difficult to measure because cultures provide different environmental emphases that may affect achievement scores
   Mathematics achievement
   Asians score versus American children
   Asian and American Cultural Differences in Math
   Sex Differences
   No consistent differences in total IQ scores
   Gender differences
   Numerical reasoning
   Spatial visualization
   Measures of mental rotation
   Spatial Ability Tasks
   Alternative Views of Intelligence
   Information-Processing Theory
   Speed of Information Processing
   Faster reaction times on speed of performance of simple tasks correlate with higher IQ scores
   Biological link to fast central nervous system functioning and higher IQ
   Research on children suggest speed differences may be inborn
   Information Processing
   Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
   Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
   Linguistic: Writers, speakers, multilingual
   Logical/Mathematical: Generate logical solutions to various problems
   Spatial: Production and appreciation of art
   Body Kinesthetic: Professional athletes
   Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
   Musical: Musicians, singers, composers
   Interpersonal: Helping professions
    
   Intrapersonal: Being good at identifying own strengths
   Naturalistic: Scientists
   Creativity
   Divergent Thinking
   Ability to produce multiple solutions to problems that have no clear answer
   Four dimensions
   Developmental Psychology
   Personality Theory & Development
   Psychoanalytic Conceptions of Personality
   The most distinctive and central function of psychoanalytic theory is that behavior is governed by both unconscious and conscious processes.
   Sexual Impulses (or more generally, life affirming impulses) Libido (or libidinal energy) is the energy source for this impulse. Basic Life impulses are referred to as needs.
   As an Impulse grows, it becomes more likely that the person will choose an action which will reduce this need.
   Psychoanalytic Structure of the Mind
   The structure of the personality in psychoanalytic theory is threefold. Freud divided it into the id, the ego, and the superego. Only the ego was visible or on the surface, while the id and the superego remains below, but each has its own effects on the personality, nonetheless.
   Psychosexual Stages of Development
   Oral Stage (infancy to about 18 months)
   Anal Stage (about 18 months to 3 years old)
   Phallic Stage (can occur as early as 3 yrs to about 6 years old )
   Oedipal/Electra Complex (major crisis of this stage)
   Latency (6 years to puberty)
   Genital Stage (Puberty – adulthood)
   Other Psychodynamic Personality Theorists
   Carl Jung: was a Swiss psychiatrist who  developed his own psychodynamic theory – analytical (Jungian) psychology.
   Jung, like Freud was intrigued by unconscious processes. He believed that we not only have a Personal Unconscious that contains repressed memories and impulses, but also an inherited Collective Unconscious. The collective unconscious contains primitive images, or Archetypes, that reflect the history of our species.
   Jung & the Myers- Briggs
   One aspect of Jung’s  theory concerned traits that Jung felt were inborn.  These inborn, genetically determined traits are usually called temperaments.
   Later, two students of Jung's theory named Myers and Briggs - mother and daughter - developed a personality test based on Jung's temperaments called the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory, or MBTI.  It has gone on the become the most famous personality test of all time.
   Other Psychodynamic Personality Theorists
   Alfred Adler – Another follower of Freud, also felt that Freud had placed too much emphasis on sexual impulses. Adler believed that people are basically motivated by an inferiority complex.
   Drive  for Superiority
   Creative Self
   Individual Psychology
   Other Psychodynamic Personality Theorists
   Karen Horney – Neo-psychoanalyst who argued argued that little girls do not feel inferior to boys and that these views were founded on western cultural prejudice, not scientific evidence.
   She asserted that unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses are less important than social relationships in children’s development. She also believed that genuine and consistent love can alleviate the effects of even the most traumatic childhood.
   Other Psychodynamic Personality Theorists
   Erik Erikson - proposed stages of psychosocial development. Rather than label stages for various erogenous zones as Freud did, Erikson labeled them for the traits that might be developed according to its possible outcomes.
   Evaluation of Psychodynamic Perspective
   They involve many concepts and explain many varieties of human behavior and traits. 
   Although today concepts such as the id and libido strike many psychologists as unscientific,
   Freud fought for the idea that human personality and behavior are subject to scientific analysis.
   Developmental Psychology
   Personality Theory & Development
   Trait Theories of Personality
   Gordon Allport proposed that an individual's conscious motives and traits better describe personality than does that person's unconscious motivation. He identified three types of traits:
   Cardinal traits
   Central traits
   Secondary traits
   Allport’s Trait Theory
   Cardinal traits, such as a tendency to seek out the truth, govern the direction of one's life.
   Central traits operate in daily interactions, as illustrated by a tendency to always try to control a situation.
   Secondary traits, such as a tendency to discriminate against older people, involve response to a specific situation.
   Cattell’s Trait Theory
   Raymond Cattell, by means of a statistical technique called factor analysis, organized the huge number of words used generally to describe personality (over 17,000) and reduced them to 16 basic factors.
   Cattell’s Personality Factors
   emotional, easily upset vs. calm, stable
   intelligent vs. unintelligent
   suspicious vs. trusting
   reserved, unfriendly vs. outgoing, friendly
   assertive, dominant vs. not assertive, humble
   sober, serious vs. happy-go-lucky
   conscientious vs. expedient
   shy, timid vs. venturesome
   Among others….
   Eysenck’s Trait Theory
   Hans Eysenck was, along with Cattell, among the first psychologist to make this traits and temperament into something more mathematical.
   Instead of making these traits either-or, like Jung did, he saw them as dimensions.
   The 5 Factor Model
   More recently, a number of researchers have been using the latest in computer technology to redo the work that Eysenck and other earlier researchers did in far more laborious ways.  This has lead to what is known as the "big five" or the "five factor" theory.
   The 5 Factor Model
   OCEAN
   Openness
   Contentiousness
   Extroversion-Introversion
   Agreeableness
   Neuroticism
   Genetics & the 5 Factor Model
   Evaluation of Trait Theories
   These five have stood up so well to research that I suspect most psychologists today accept them, at least until something even better comes along.
   It is also becoming clear that these are in fact strongly influenced by genetics.  In other words, you are born with at least the general outline of your personality traits already laid out for you.  That doesn't mean you can't change - it just means that it is less likely and more difficult.
   Behaviorism & Learning Theory
   Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioral change.
   John B. Watson
   B.F. Skinner
   Albert Bandura
   Social Learning Theory
   Social-Cognitive theories of personality
   Social Cognitive Theory
   The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies
   Evaluating behavioral change depends on the factors environment, people and behavior.
   Social Cognitive Theory  provides a framework for designing, implementing and evaluating programs.
   Humanistic-Existential Perspective of Personality
   For the humanist/existentialist the prime focus on a psychology and personality of humans must acknowledge factors that are specifically human, such as choice, responsibility, freedom, and how humans create meaning in their lives.
   Human behavior is not seen as determined in some mechanistic way, either by inner psychological forces, schedules of external reinforcement, or genetic endowments, but rather as a result of what we choose and how we create meaning from among those choices.
   Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
   Characteristics of Self-Actualizers:
   Realistically oriented
   Accept self & others for what they are
   Spontaneous
   Problem-Centered vs. Self-Centered
   5)Somewhat Detached, need privacy
   Autonomous/Independent
   Appreciate People & Things
   Appreciate the mystery of life
   Identify with humanity (feel connected)
   Able to have deeply emotional relationships
   Believe in Democratic Values
   Does not confuse means with ends
   Developmental Psychology
   Personality Theory & Development
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Trait Theories of Personality
   Gordon Allport proposed that an individual's conscious motives and traits better describe personality than does that person's unconscious motivation. He identified three types of traits:
   Cardinal traits
   Central traits
   Secondary traits
   Allport’s Trait Theory
   Cardinal traits, such as a tendency to seek out the truth, govern the direction of one's life.
   Central traits operate in daily interactions, as illustrated by a tendency to always try to control a situation.
   Secondary traits, such as a tendency to discriminate against older people, involve response to a specific situation.
   Cattell’s Trait Theory
   Raymond Cattell, by means of a statistical technique called factor analysis, organized the huge number of words used generally to describe personality (over 17,000) and reduced them to 16 basic factors.
   Cattell’s Personality Factors
   emotional, easily upset vs. calm, stable
   intelligent vs. unintelligent
   suspicious vs. trusting
   reserved, unfriendly vs. outgoing, friendly
   assertive, dominant vs. not assertive, humble
   sober, serious vs. happy-go-lucky
   conscientious vs. expedient
   shy, timid vs. venturesome
   Among others….
   Eysenck’s Trait Theory
   Hans Eysenck was, along with Cattell, among the first psychologist to make this traits and temperament into something more mathematical.
   Instead of making these traits either-or, like Jung did, he saw them as dimensions.
   The 5 Factor Model
   More recently, a number of researchers have been using the latest in computer technology to redo the work that Eysenck and other earlier researchers did in far more laborious ways.  This has lead to what is known as the "big five" or the "five factor" theory.
   The 5 Factor Model
   OCEAN
   Openness
   Contentiousness
   Extroversion-Introversion
   Agreeableness
   Neuroticism
   Genetics & the 5 Factor Model
   Evaluation of Trait Theories
   These five have stood up so well to research that I suspect most psychologists today accept them, at least until something even better comes along.
   It is also becoming clear that these are in fact strongly influenced by genetics.  In other words, you are born with at least the general outline of your personality traits already laid out for you.  That doesn't mean you can't change - it just means that it is less likely and more difficult.
   Behaviorism & Learning Theory
   Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioral change.
   John B. Watson
   B.F. Skinner
   Albert Bandura
   Social Learning Theory
   Social-Cognitive theories of personality
   Social Cognitive Theory
   The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies
   Evaluating behavioral change depends on the factors environment, people and behavior.
   Social Cognitive Theory  provides a framework for designing, implementing and evaluating programs.
   Humanistic-Existential Perspective of Personality
   For the humanist/existentialist the prime focus on a psychology and personality of humans must acknowledge factors that are specifically human, such as choice, responsibility, freedom, and how humans create meaning in their lives.
   Human behavior is not seen as determined in some mechanistic way, either by inner psychological forces, schedules of external reinforcement, or genetic endowments, but rather as a result of what we choose and how we create meaning from among those choices.
   Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
   Characteristics of Self-Actualizers:
   Realistically oriented
   Accept self & others for what they are
   Spontaneous
   Problem-Centered vs. Self-Centered
   5)Somewhat Detached, need privacy
   Autonomous/Independent
   Appreciate People & Things
   Appreciate the mystery of life
   Identify with humanity (feel connected)
   Able to have deeply emotional relationships
   Believe in Democratic Values
   Does not confuse means with ends
   Developmental Psychology
   Personality Development & The Self
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Existentialist School
   The existential school, while sharing many of the beliefs of the humanistic psychologists is not as positive and optimistic about the inner unfolding of human beings. 
   They believe that it requires active intention to create this inner unfolding, often referred to as authenticity.
   Umwelt
   Mitwelt
   Elgenwelt
   Interactionist School of Personality
   The interactionist view takes into account inner factors, but believes the expression of these inner tendencies is modified in interaction with environmental factors.
   Kurt Lewin
   George Herbert Mead
   Harry Stack Sullivan
   Henry Murray
   Walter Mischel
   An early expression of this view is seen in Kurt Lewin’s famous formula, B = f (P, E) i.e., behavior is a function of the person and the environment.
   Thematic Apperception Test
   The Milgram Study
   Play from 0.59
   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8olVHKgIBXc
   Toward an Integrated Theory
   Toward an Integrated Theory
   Discovering Psychology: Development of The Self
   http://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/15/e15expand.html
   Developmental Psychology
   The Self, Gender & Sexuality
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Early Formation of
   “The Self”
   Preschool vs. School-Aged
   Preschool Aged - wishfully tries to imbue the self with power through fantasy, expressed in play about adult roles or superheroes.
   School – Aged -  the school aged child’s sense of self is based on comparisons with others. He or she thinks about how his or her actions will be responded to by peers and adults.
   The development of self-esteem in middle childhood therefore is very much interrelated with a history of being accepted and supported in middle childhood.
   Motivation, Achievement, & Self-Esteem
   Motivation, Achievement, & Self-Esteem
   Self-Control vs. Self-Concept
   Capacity for
   Self-Observation
   School-aged children have much more capacity for self-observation than do younger children.
   As children move to the latter part of middle childhood, their self-evaluations tend to be increasingly consistent with the ways that others see them.
   New cognitive abilities allow children to understand their earlier experiences in new ways.
   Gender Culture, & Identity
   Sex vs. Gender
   According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, "Gender is cultural and is the term to use when referring to women and men as social groups.
   Sex is biological and refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.
   Gender, Identity, and the Self
   Self Identity and Social Identity:
   Gender, like other subcultural markers, affect how one perceives themselves and how they are perceived by others. This is referred to as one's self-identity and one's social identity.
   Understanding and Studying Sex & Gender
   There are two main biological differences that are useful in a comparative study of sex and gender cross-culturally:
   sexual dimorphism, physical differences based on genetic differences between males and females.
   reproductive physiology, women's ability to become pregnant, carry and birth children, and produce milk to nurse them men's contribution of sperm both areas are interpreted differently depending on the culture
   Gender Identity and Sex Roles
   Margret Mead
   Masculine and feminine traits are patterned by culture.
   Key findings in New Guinea:
   Arapesh: both sexes are expected to act in ways Americans consider “feminine”.
   Mundugamor: both sexes were what  American culture would call “masculine”.
   The Cultural Construction of Gender
   Cultural Construction of Gender - The idea that gender characteristics are not inborn but rather constructed within each culture.
   All cultures recognize:
   Two sexes: male and female.
   Two genders: masculine and feminine.
   The Cultural Construction of Gender
   Alternative Gender Roles
   Alternative Gender Roles – Genders where neither man nor woman have been described for many societies:
   Two-spirit (Berdash)—a man living as a woman and considered to have supernatural powers in native American society.
   Hijra—an alternative gender role in India conceptualized as neither man nor woman.
   Gender Dysphoria
   In Gender Dysphoria/Gender Identity Disorder, a person with this disorder often experiences great discomfort regarding his or her actual anatomic gender
   The disorder affects an individual's self-image, and can impact the person's mannerisms, behavior, and dress.
   Gender Identity & Dysphoria
   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsVu8my2wRY
   Developmental Psychology
   The Self, Gender, Sexuality, & Attachment
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Sexuality and Culture
   Sexual norms affect sexual attitudes and behavior.
   Cultures differ in:
   Age that sexuality begins and ends.
   Ways people make themselves attractive.
   Sexual behaviors that are seen as appropriate vs. inappropriate.
   Importance of sexual activity.
   Early Psychological Conceptions of Homosexuality
   Freud believed that all humans were bisexual.
   Freud appears to have been undecided whether or not homosexuality was pathological, expressing different views on this issue at different times and places in his work.
   Cross-Cultural Conceptions of Homosexuality
   Adolescent boys in Sambia (Papua New Guinea) have homosexual relations as part of initiation but enter heterosexual marriages as adults.
   In the United States, consistent heterosexuality is considered essential to masculine identity.
   Modern Psychology and Sexual Orientation
   The American Psychological Association states that:
   "sexual orientation falls along a continuum.”
   In other words, someone does not have to be exclusively homosexual or heterosexual, but can “feel varying degrees of both.”
   “Sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime–different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual.”
   Experience & Prevalence
   According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006):
   ...the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality.
   Harry Harlow & Contact Comfort
   Contact Comfort
   Attachment Theory
   The theory of attachment was originally developed by John Bowlby (1907 - 1990), a British psychoanalyst who was attempting to understand the intense distress experienced by infants who had been separated from their parents.
   An Evolved Conception of Attachment
   Bolby felt attachment behaviors were adaptive because they reduced separation from attachment figure. This was considered to be part of an attachment behavioral system, designed by natural selection.
   The Attachment Behavioral System
   Bowlby postulated that these attachment behaviors, such as crying and searching, were adaptive responses to separation.
   Because human infants, like other mammalian infants, cannot feed or protect themselves, they are dependent upon the care and protection of "older and wiser" adults.
   The Attachment Behavioral System
   Individual Differences in Attachment Patterns
   Mary Ainsworth (1913 - 1999), Bowby’s colleague, began to systematically study infant-parent separations, and was the first to contribute to a formal understanding of individual differences in attachment.
   The “Strange Situation”
   Ainsworth and her students developed a technique called the strange situation--a laboratory paradigm for studying infant-parent attachment
   Video of the “Strange Situation”
   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s608077NtNI
   Types of Attachment
   Secure Attachment – The child becomes upset when the parent leaves the room, but, when he or she returns, they actively seek the parent and are easily comforted by him or her.
   Anxious (Insecure) Avoidant Attachment -- Other children (about 20% or less) are ill-at-ease initially, and, upon separation, become extremely distressed. Importantly, when reunited with their parents, these children have a difficult time being soothed, and often exhibit conflicting behaviors that suggest they want to be comforted, but that they also want to "punish" the parent for leaving.
   Avoidant Attachment - Avoidant children (about 20%) don't appear too distressed by the separation, and, upon reunion, actively avoid seeking contact with their parent, sometimes turning their attention to play objects on the laboratory floor.
   Why is the “Strange Situation” Important?
   First, she provided one of the first empirical demonstrations of how attachment behavior is patterned in both safe and frightening contexts.
   Second, she provided the first empirical taxonomy of individual differences in infant attachment patterns.
   Finally, she demonstrated that these individual differences were correlated with infant-parent interactions in the home during the first year of life.
   Adult Romantic Relationships & Conceptions of the Self
   Hazan and Shaver noted that the relationship between infants and caregivers and the relationship between adult romantic partners share the following features:
   both feel safe when the other is nearby and responsive
   both engage in close, intimate, bodily contact
   both feel insecure when the other is inaccessible
   both share discoveries with one another
   both play with one another's facial features and exhibit a mutual fascination and preoccupation with one another
   both engage in "baby talk"
   Three Implications of a Adult Attachment Theory
   First, if adult romantic relationships are attachment relationships, then we should observe the same kinds of individual differences in adult relationships that Ainsworth observed in infant-caregiver relationships.
   Second, if adult romantic relationships are attachment relationships, then the way adult relationships "work" should be similar to the way infant-caregiver relationships work.
   Third, whether an adult is secure or insecure in his or her adult relationships may be a partial reflection of his or her experiences with his or her primary caregivers.
   Attachment Patterns Among Adults
   I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, others want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being.
   I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me.
   I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away.
   Attachment Patterns from a Dimensional Perspective
   What Does Attachment Influence?
   Partner selection
   Secure base and safe haven behavior
   Avoidant Attachment and Defense Mechanisms
   Trait Theories of Personality
   Gordon Allport proposed that an individual's conscious motives and traits better describe personality than does that person's unconscious motivation. He identified three types of traits:
   Cardinal traits
   Central traits
   Secondary traits
   Allport’s Trait Theory
   Cardinal traits, such as a tendency to seek out the truth, govern the direction of one's life.
   Central traits operate in daily interactions, as illustrated by a tendency to always try to control a situation.
   Secondary traits, such as a tendency to discriminate against older people, involve response to a specific situation.
   Cattell’s Trait Theory
   Raymond Cattell, by means of a statistical technique called factor analysis, organized the huge number of words used generally to describe personality (over 17,000) and reduced them to 16 basic factors.
   Cattell’s Personality Factors
   emotional, easily upset vs. calm, stable
   intelligent vs. unintelligent
   suspicious vs. trusting
   reserved, unfriendly vs. outgoing, friendly
   assertive, dominant vs. not assertive, humble
   sober, serious vs. happy-go-lucky
   conscientious vs. expedient
   shy, timid vs. venturesome
   Among others….
   Eysenck’s Trait Theory
   Hans Eysenck was, along with Cattell, among the first psychologist to make this traits and temperament into something more mathematical.
   Instead of making these traits either-or, like Jung did, he saw them as dimensions.
   The 5 Factor Model
   More recently, a number of researchers have been using the latest in computer technology to redo the work that Eysenck and other earlier researchers did in far more laborious ways.  This has lead to what is known as the "big five" or the "five factor" theory.
   The 5 Factor Model
   OCEAN
   Openness
   Contentiousness
   Extroversion-Introversion
   Agreeableness
   Neuroticism
   Genetics & the 5 Factor Model
   Evaluation of Trait Theories
   These five have stood up so well to research that I suspect most psychologists today accept them, at least until something even better comes along.
   It is also becoming clear that these are in fact strongly influenced by genetics.  In other words, you are born with at least the general outline of your personality traits already laid out for you.  That doesn't mean you can't change - it just means that it is less likely and more difficult.
   Behaviorism & Learning Theory
   Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioral change.
   John B. Watson
   B.F. Skinner
   Albert Bandura
   Social Learning Theory
   Social-Cognitive theories of personality
   Social Cognitive Theory
   The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies
   Evaluating behavioral change depends on the factors environment, people and behavior.
   Social Cognitive Theory  provides a framework for designing, implementing and evaluating programs.
   Humanistic-Existential Perspective of Personality
   For the humanist/existentialist the prime focus on a psychology and personality of humans must acknowledge factors that are specifically human, such as choice, responsibility, freedom, and how humans create meaning in their lives.
   Human behavior is not seen as determined in some mechanistic way, either by inner psychological forces, schedules of external reinforcement, or genetic endowments, but rather as a result of what we choose and how we create meaning from among those choices.
   Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
   Characteristics of Self-Actualizers:
   Realistically oriented
   Accept self & others for what they are
   Spontaneous
   Problem-Centered vs. Self-Centered
   5)Somewhat Detached, need privacy
   Autonomous/Independent
   Appreciate People & Things
   Appreciate the mystery of life
   Identify with humanity (feel connected)
   Able to have deeply emotional relationships
   Believe in Democratic Values
   Does not confuse means with ends
   Developmental Psychology
   Personality Development & The Self
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Existentialist School
   The existential school, while sharing many of the beliefs of the humanistic psychologists is not as positive and optimistic about the inner unfolding of human beings. 
   They believe that it requires active intention to create this inner unfolding, often referred to as authenticity.
   Umwelt
   Mitwelt
   Elgenwelt
   Interactionist School of Personality
   The interactionist view takes into account inner factors, but believes the expression of these inner tendencies is modified in interaction with environmental factors.
   Kurt Lewin
   George Herbert Mead
   Harry Stack Sullivan
   Henry Murray
   Walter Mischel
   An early expression of this view is seen in Kurt Lewin’s famous formula, B = f (P, E) i.e., behavior is a function of the person and the environment.
   Thematic Apperception Test
   The Milgram Study
   Play from 0.59
   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8olVHKgIBXc
   Toward an Integrated Theory
   Toward an Integrated Theory
   Discovering Psychology: Development of The Self
   http://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/15/e15expand.html
   Developmental Psychology
   The Self, Gender & Sexuality
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Early Formation of
   “The Self”
   Preschool vs. School-Aged
   Preschool Aged - wishfully tries to imbue the self with power through fantasy, expressed in play about adult roles or superheroes.
   School – Aged -  the school aged child’s sense of self is based on comparisons with others. He or she thinks about how his or her actions will be responded to by peers and adults.
   The development of self-esteem in middle childhood therefore is very much interrelated with a history of being accepted and supported in middle childhood.
   Motivation, Achievement, & Self-Esteem
   Motivation, Achievement, & Self-Esteem
   Self-Control vs. Self-Concept
   Capacity for
   Self-Observation
   School-aged children have much more capacity for self-observation than do younger children.
   As children move to the latter part of middle childhood, their self-evaluations tend to be increasingly consistent with the ways that others see them.
   New cognitive abilities allow children to understand their earlier experiences in new ways.
   Gender Culture, & Identity
   Sex vs. Gender
   According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, "Gender is cultural and is the term to use when referring to women and men as social groups.
   Sex is biological and refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.
   Gender, Identity, and the Self
   Self Identity and Social Identity:
   Gender, like other subcultural markers, affect how one perceives themselves and how they are perceived by others. This is referred to as one's self-identity and one's social identity.
   Understanding and Studying Sex & Gender
   There are two main biological differences that are useful in a comparative study of sex and gender cross-culturally:
   sexual dimorphism, physical differences based on genetic differences between males and females.
   reproductive physiology, women's ability to become pregnant, carry and birth children, and produce milk to nurse them men's contribution of sperm both areas are interpreted differently depending on the culture
   Gender Identity and Sex Roles
   Margret Mead
   Masculine and feminine traits are patterned by culture.
   Key findings in New Guinea:
   Arapesh: both sexes are expected to act in ways Americans consider “feminine”.
   Mundugamor: both sexes were what  American culture would call “masculine”.
   The Cultural Construction of Gender
   Cultural Construction of Gender - The idea that gender characteristics are not inborn but rather constructed within each culture.
   All cultures recognize:
   Two sexes: male and female.
   Two genders: masculine and feminine.
   The Cultural Construction of Gender
   Alternative Gender Roles
   Alternative Gender Roles – Genders where neither man nor woman have been described for many societies:
   Two-spirit (Berdash)—a man living as a woman and considered to have supernatural powers in native American society.
   Hijra—an alternative gender role in India conceptualized as neither man nor woman.
   Gender Dysphoria
   In Gender Dysphoria/Gender Identity Disorder, a person with this disorder often experiences great discomfort regarding his or her actual anatomic gender
   The disorder affects an individual's self-image, and can impact the person's mannerisms, behavior, and dress.
   Gender Identity & Dysphoria
   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsVu8my2wRY
   Developmental Psychology
   The Self, Gender, Sexuality, & Attachment
   Professor Gavin Ryan Shafron, M.A.
   Sexuality and Culture
   Sexual norms affect sexual attitudes and behavior.
   Cultures differ in:
   Age that sexuality begins and ends.
   Ways people make themselves attractive.
   Sexual behaviors that are seen as appropriate vs. inappropriate.
   Importance of sexual activity.
   Early Psychological Conceptions of Homosexuality
   Freud believed that all humans were bisexual.
   Freud appears to have been undecided whether or not homosexuality was pathological, expressing different views on this issue at different times and places in his work.
   Cross-Cultural Conceptions of Homosexuality
   Adolescent boys in Sambia (Papua New Guinea) have homosexual relations as part of initiation but enter heterosexual marriages as adults.
   In the United States, consistent heterosexuality is considered essential to masculine identity.
   Modern Psychology and Sexual Orientation
   The American Psychological Association states that:
   "sexual orientation falls along a continuum.”
   In other words, someone does not have to be exclusively homosexual or heterosexual, but can “feel varying degrees of both.”
   “Sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime–different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual.”
   Experience & Prevalence
   According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006):
   ...the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality.
   Harry Harlow & Contact Comfort
   Contact Comfort
   Attachment Theory
   The theory of attachment was originally developed by John Bowlby (1907 - 1990), a British psychoanalyst who was attempting to understand the intense distress experienced by infants who had been separated from their parents.
   An Evolved Conception of Attachment
   Bolby felt attachment behaviors were adaptive because they reduced separation from attachment figure. This was considered to be part of an attachment behavioral system, designed by natural selection.
   The Attachment Behavioral System
   Bowlby postulated that these attachment behaviors, such as crying and searching, were adaptive responses to separation.
   Because human infants, like other mammalian infants, cannot feed or protect themselves, they are dependent upon the care and protection of "older and wiser" adults.
   The Attachment Behavioral System
   Individual Differences in Attachment Patterns
   Mary Ainsworth (1913 - 1999), Bowby’s colleague, began to systematically study infant-parent separations, and was the first to contribute to a formal understanding of individual differences in attachment.
   The “Strange Situation”
   Ainsworth and her students developed a technique called the strange situation--a laboratory paradigm for studying infant-parent attachment
   Video of the “Strange Situation”
   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s608077NtNI
   Types of Attachment
   Secure Attachment – The child becomes upset when the parent leaves the room, but, when he or she returns, they actively seek the parent and are easily comforted by him or her.
   Anxious (Insecure) Avoidant Attachment -- Other children (about 20% or less) are ill-at-ease initially, and, upon separation, become extremely distressed. Importantly, when reunited with their parents, these children have a difficult time being soothed, and often exhibit conflicting behaviors that suggest they want to be comforted, but that they also want to "punish" the parent for leaving.
   Avoidant Attachment - Avoidant children (about 20%) don't appear too distressed by the separation, and, upon reunion, actively avoid seeking contact with their parent, sometimes turning their attention to play objects on the laboratory floor.
   Why is the “Strange Situation” Important?
   First, she provided one of the first empirical demonstrations of how attachment behavior is patterned in both safe and frightening contexts.
   Second, she provided the first empirical taxonomy of individual differences in infant attachment patterns.
   Finally, she demonstrated that these individual differences were correlated with infant-parent interactions in the home during the first year of life.
   Adult Romantic Relationships & Conceptions of the Self
   Hazan and Shaver noted that the relationship between infants and caregivers and the relationship between adult romantic partners share the following features:
   both feel safe when the other is nearby and responsive
   both engage in close, intimate, bodily contact
   both feel insecure when the other is inaccessible
   both share discoveries with one another
   both play with one another's facial features and exhibit a mutual fascination and preoccupation with one another
   both engage in "baby talk"
   Three Implications of a Adult Attachment Theory
   First, if adult romantic relationships are attachment relationships, then we should observe the same kinds of individual differences in adult relationships that Ainsworth observed in infant-caregiver relationships.
   Second, if adult romantic relationships are attachment relationships, then the way adult relationships "work" should be similar to the way infant-caregiver relationships work.
   Third, whether an adult is secure or insecure in his or her adult relationships may be a partial reflection of his or her experiences with his or her primary caregivers.
   Attachment Patterns Among Adults
   I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, others want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being.
   I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me.
   I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away.
   Attachment Patterns from a Dimensional Perspective
   What Does Attachment Influence?
   Partner selection
   Secure base and safe haven behavior
   Avoidant Attachment and Defense Mechanisms
   Conclusions
   Conclusions (continued)
   Implications for Policy-Makers and Service-Providers
   That it is possible to act early to prevent later problems.
   Because peer acceptance is associated with better psychological adjustment and educational achievement, programs that support early competence with peers will have implications for educational and mental-health policy.
   Problems that have been noted in mainstreamed preschool classrooms may derive from underlying deficits that could be addressed directly.
   Bullying
   Bullying is defined as a distinctive pattern of deliberately harming and humiliating others. It's a very durable behavioral style, largely because bullies get what they want—at least at first.
   Those singled out by bullies lack assertiveness and radiate fear long before they ever encounter a bully.
   Grown-up bullies wreak havoc in their relationships, online, and in the workplace.
   Types of Bullying
   Physical Bullying includes: Hitting, kicking, or pushing someone...or even just threatening to do it. Stealing, hiding or ruining someone's things and forcing behaviors.
   Verbal Bullying includes: Name calling Teasing, Insulting, or any kind of verbal abuse.
   Relationship Bullying includes: Refusing to talk to someone, spreading lies or rumors about someone and can also include making someone do things he or she doesn't want to do.
   Cyberbullying is the use of technology to harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another person. By definition, it occurs among young people. When an adult is involved, it may meet the definition of cyber-harassment or cyber-stalking, a crime that can have legal consequences and involve jail time.
   Bullying Facts
   Over 3.2 million students are victims of bullying each year.
   1 in 4 teachers see nothing wrong with bullying and will only intervene 4 percent of the time.
   56 percent of students have personally witnessed some type of bullying at school.
   90 percent of 4th through 8th graders report being victims of bullying.
   Physical bullying increases in elementary school, peaks in middle school and declines in high school.  Verbal abuse, on the other hand, remains constant.
   Signs a Child is Being Bullied
   The signs that a child is being bullied vary, but a few things to look for are:
   signs of emotional distress during or after using the Internet or the phone
   being very protective or secretive of their digital life
   withdrawal from friends and activities
   avoidance of school or group gatherings
   slipping grades and "acting out" in anger at home
   changes in mood, behavior, sleep, or appetite
   Impact of Bullying
   http://abcnews.go.com/US/bullied-teen-amanda-todds-video-passes-13m-views/story?id=17548856 - .UVxOHevwL0g
   So what do you think?
   What are some things that can be done about bullying?
   What should the punishment be for bullying? Should cyberbullying have a different (more or less severe) punishment?
   Has all the attention to this subject by parents, educators, legislators and filmmakers helped?
   Developmental Psychology
   Moral Development
   Piaget’s Stages of Moral Judgment
   Piaget’s Two Stage Theory
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   >10 or 11 years--children's moral thinking undergoes other shifts. In particular, younger children base their moral judgments more on consequences, whereas older children base their judgments on intentions
   Studying Morality
   Lawrence Kohlberg
   Asked children and adults to try to solve moral dilemmas contained in little stories, and to do so out loud so he could follow their reasoning.
   Kholberg’s 3 category & 6 Stages of Morality
   Pre-conventional morality: (Stages 1 & 2)
   Conventional morality: (Stages 3 & 4)
   Post-conventional morality: (Stages 5 & 6)
   Kholberg’s Theory
   Kholberg’s Vignettes
   "In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.”
   The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).
   Level I:  Pre-conventional Morality
   Level I:  Pre-conventional morality.  While infants are essentially amoral, very young children are moral in a rather primitive way, as described by the two preconventional stages.
   Stage 1. This is the reward and punishment stage.  Good or bad depends on the physical consequences:  Does the
   Stage 2.  This we can call the exchange stage.  In this stage, there is increased recognition that others have their own interests and should be taken into account. 
   Level II: Conventional morality.
   Level II:  Conventional morality.  By the time children enter elementary school, they are usually capable of conventional morality, although they may often slip back into preconventional morality on occasion.
   Stage 3.  This stage is often called the good boy/good girl stage.
   Stage 4.  This is called the law-and-order stage.
   Level III:  Post-conventional morality.
   Level III:  Post-conventional morality.  Some adolescents and adults go a step further and rise above moralities based on authority to ones based on reason.
   Stage 5.  The social contract stage means being aware of the degree to which much of so-called morality is relative to the individual and to the social group they belong to, and that only a very few fundamental values are universal.
   Stage 6.  This stage is referred to as the stage of universal principles.
   Bronfenbrenner's Theory
   Self-oriented morality.
   Authority-oriented morality.
   Peer-oriented morality.
   Collective-oriented morality.
   Objectively oriented morality.
   Self-oriented morality
   Self-oriented morality.  This is analogous to Kohlberg's pre-conventional morality.  Basically, the child is only interested in self-gratification and only considers others to the extent that they can help him get what he wants, or hinder him.
   Authority-oriented morality.
   Authority-oriented morality.  Here, the child, or adult, basically accepts the decrees of authority figures, from parents up to heads of state and religion, as defining good and bad.
   Peer-oriented morality
   Peer-oriented morality:  This is basically a morality of conformity, where right and wrong is determined not by authority but by one's peers.  In western society, this kind of morality is frequently found among adolescents, as well as many adults.
   Collective-oriented morality
   Collective-oriented morality:  In this orientation, the standing goals of the group to which the child or adult belongs over-ride individual interests.  Duty to one's group or society is paramount.
   Objectively oriented morality
   Objectively oriented morality: By objectively, Bronfenbrenner means universal principles that are objective in the sense that they do not depend on the whims of individuals or social groups, but have a reality all their own.
   is analogous to Kohlberg's  post-conventional level
   Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Youth
   Aggression and antisocial behaviors in youngsters are complex
   More than just a question of moral development:
   extending across the individual, family, and community environments
   Because of this complexity, established antisocial behavior is not easily altered
   What do you think?
   What causes the antisocial behavior the likes of which was perpetrated yesterday at Lone Star College?
   “At-Risk” Children
   A small percentage of aggressive children are at high risk to continue their aggressive behaviors into adolescence and adulthood. These children are called early starters.
   They demonstrate an onset of diverse aggressive before age 10 years.
   “At-Risk” Children
   Observational studies indicate that approximately 50 percent of the social interchanges between children 12 to 18 months of age in a nursery school setting could be viewed as disruptive or conflictual
   by age 2 and 1/2 years the proportion of conflicted social interchanges drops to 20 percent. As children enter school physical aggression decreases and verbal forms of aggression increase.
   Profile of “At Risk” Children
   The preschool child who largely directs aggression towards adults in out-of-home environments such as nursery school does not fit what is presently known about the normative aspects of aggression.
   The school-age child, who frequently and repetitively initiates physical attacks on others..
   The school-aged child who consistently uses physical aggression to obtain possessions from others.
   The persistently hyperactive/impulsive child is at risk for antisocial behaviors
   “At-Risk” Parenting
   Coercive parent-child interaction patterns
   Harsh and inconsistent parental discipline practices
   Failure to monitor and supervise children after school
   Early Intervention Programs
   It is becoming clear that effect sizes for interventions diminish as the at-risk child grows older.
   Family, educational and community treatments appear to be stronger for younger aggressive children and their families, rather than older aggressive children and teenagers.
   To the extent that an early starter antisocial trajectory can be modified, the earlier the intervention, the better.
   Transition Points
   Critical periods of development for diminishing aggressive behavior may be concentrated in the transitions from
   from preschool to elementary school
   And
   from late adolescence to the young adult years.
   Verbal Competency
   Groups of persistently aggressive and antisocial children and adolescents consistently demonstrate diminished verbal competency relative to non-aggressive control samples.
   Poorer Reading Skills
   Poorer expressive and receptive language skills
   Increased incidence of learning disabilities
   Community Interventions
   Constant exposure to media violence may engender desensitization and a numbing of emotional response to real violence.
   Violent media glamorize conflict resolution strategies emphasizing aggression - strategies that are easily adopted by impressionable youngsters.
   The role of handguns
   
   Question: Is development more due to genes or environment? Do you think that the answer varies depending on what type of development we are referring to? Are there any other variables that might account for development?
   
   Answer:
   Development is due to both, genes and environment. It depends of the resources such as parental income and education, ethnicity, and immigrant status as well as the ways in which equity among groups may be promoted, and these are just a few examples of variables that may cause the development.  According  Two important questions in the scientific study of child development:  Of Nature vs. Nurture, by (G. Stanley Hall ) he believed that the milestones of childhood were dictated by an inborn developmental plan and were similar to those that had taken place in the evolution of the human species. He believed that norms or average ages at which milestones happened, and by (John Watson) explained development in terms of environmental.
   
   http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Nature_versus_nurture.html
   
   http://www.teds.ac.uk/publications.asp
   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3091813/pdf/nihms219498.pdf
   http://theweek.com/article/index/238380/9-incredible-stories-about-identical-twins
   
   
   Concept Review Answers
   Chapter 1
   Answers to Concept Review
   Living things acquire energy and raw materials from the environment, which they
   then use to make molecules not found in nature. Non-living things can’t do this.
   Homeostasis is a state of dynamic equilibrium characterized by a relative
   constancy of the internal environment of living organisms. The maintenance of
   homeostasis is necessary because most of life’s processes only occur within a
   narrow range of physical/chemical conditions.
   Bipedalism, opposable thumbs, large brain, and capacity for complex language.
   A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the natural world. Importantly, it is a
   statement that can lead to testable predictions. A prediction, or working
   hypothesis, is a quantifiable statement that can be shown to be true or false.
   Often it is stated as an “if”…”then”…statement.
   Scientists provide us information about the natural world; information that may
   help us as we make informed choices in areas of economic, social, and ethical
   dilemmas. But scientists are not necessarily any better equipped than we are to
   answer these economic, social or ethical dilemmas.
   Chapter 2
   Answers to Concept Review
   Protons and neutrons have about equal masses; protons and electrons have
   charges; electrons have very little mass.
   The one electron of each hydrogen atom completes the orbital of the other.
   Polar and charged molecules are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water,
   so they are easily dissociated from each other and easily surrounded by water
   molecules.
   In covalent bonds, electrons are shared and rotate around both atoms, forming a
   strong attraction between the two atoms. Ionic bonds are formed by the
   attractive forces between oppositely-charged molecules. Covalent bonds are the
   stronger of the two, and hence are harder to break.
   Potential energy is energy that is not actively doing anything, but can be stored
   or used, as in the energy in glucose or ATP. Kinetic energy is working energy
   that is actively facilitating work, as in the energy removed from ATP to help an
   endothermic reaction occur.
   Saturated fats have all the possible hydrogens attached to carbons; unsaturated
   fats are missing some of these hydrogens. Saturated fats tend to be “stiffer”
   than unsaturated fats. Saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature;
   unsaturated fats tend to be liquid.
   Cholesterol is a component of cell membranes. It’s also required for the synthesis
   of the reproductive hormones, estrogen and testosterone.
   A protein’s shape is determined by weak chemical bonds (hydrogen bonds and
   disulfide bridges) between some of the amino acids that comprise the protein.
   The huge variety of protein shapes is a reflection of the nearly infinite number of
   possible amino acid sequences in proteins.
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   Enzymes help chemical reactions to occur fast enough for life to proceed.
   Without them, reactions do happen, but not fast enough.
   ATP functions like a rechargeable battery, temporarily storing energy until it is
   used for life’s energy-requiring processes.
   Chapter 3
   Answers to Concept Review
   Diffusion is only is effective over very short distances, so cells must remain small
   to be able to supply themselves with nutrients and get rid of wastes.
   a. -All living things are composed of cells and cell products.
   b. -A single cell is the smallest unit that exhibits all the characteristics of life.
   c. -All cells come only from pre-existing cells.
   The heads of phospholipids are oriented toward the outside and the inside of the
   membrane, the tails toward the center of the membrane. The heads can bond
   with water; the tails cannot, but they can link with other tails. “Like seeks like.”
   Passive transport always occurs in the direction of an area of high concentration
   to an area of lower concentration. Passive transport does not require energy.
   Diffusion through the lipid membrane, diffusion through channels, and facilitated
   transport are examples of passive transport.
   Endocytosis brings materials into a cell in bulk; exocytosis expels material out of
   a cell. Molecules transported by endocytosis or exocytosis are often too large to
   cross the cell membrane by active transport or diffusion.
   The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport mechanism that keeps a
   lower concentration of sodium in a cell than is in the environment and a higher
   concentration of potassium in the cell than is in the environment. The pump is
   constantly working against the diffusion of both types of atoms. The sodiumpotassium
   pump is important in maintaining cell volume and also the electrical
   charge across the membrane.
   In both of these cases, water moves from an area or cell with a higher
   concentration of water to an area with a lower concentration of water. A high salt
   environment, or a hypertonic environment, causes water to move from the cell
   into the solution, resulting in shrinkage of the cell. A low salt environment, or
   hypotonic environment, causes water to move into the cell, sometimes causing
   the cell to burst, or lyse.
   Vesicles are membrane-bound spheres that enclose something within the cell.
   Vesicles may be secretory (for exporting materials from the cell), endocytotic (for
   importing materials into the cell), or they may contain powerful enzymes or the
   waste products of cellular digestion.
   The four stages of production of ATP from glucose are: glycolysis, a preparatory
   step leading into the citric acid cycle, the citric acid cycle, and the electron
   transport system. The last step yields the most ATP.
   Oxygen is required to complete the chemical reactions of the electron transport
   system. Without oxygen, the system backs up with no energy extracted from the
   citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain; only the very limited amount of
   ATP from glycolysis is produced.
   Chapter 4
   Answers to Concept Review
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   Advantages include greater size and the ability to seek or maintain an
   environment conducive to life. Disadvantages include the specialization that
   occurs in body tissues, limiting a particular cell’s response to change, and the
   need for greater resources to grow and survive.
   Epithelial tissues cover organs and line vessels; connective tissues are a collection
   of tissues such as cartilage, bone, and blood with specialized functions;
   muscle tissue contracts, facilitating movement; nervous tissue generates and
   transmits electrical impulses throughout the body.
   Tight junctions seal the plasma membranes of adjacent cells tightly together so
   that nothing can pass between the cells; Adhesion junctions are looser and allow
   for some movement between cells to facilitate bending and stretching; Gap
   junctions represent connecting channels made of proteins that permit movement
   of ions between cells.
   An organ is a structure comprised of two or more tissues joined together for a
   specific common function; an organ system is comprised of more than one organ
   and supportive tissues that serve a broad common function.
   Integumentary (protection), skeletal (support), muscular (movement),
   circulatory (transport), lymphatic (filtering), respiratory (gas exchange), nervous
   (control and coordination), endocrine (hormone production), digestive (provision
   of nutrients), urinary (excretion of chemical wastes), reproductive (reproduction).
   The fluid between cells.
   Thoracic and abdominal cavities.
   Negative feedback mechanisms operate in such a way that deviations from the
   desired condition are automatically detected and counteracted. In a positive
   feedback system, a change in the controlled variable sets in motion a series of
   events that amplify the original change.
   Homeostasis maintains the internal environment of a cell or of the entire body in
   a relatively constant state. Without the ability to maintain homeostasis, cells and
   tissues would not be able to operate efficiently and the organism would be
   compromised.
   The control center receives input from the sensor and compares it to the correct,
   internally set value of the controlled variable. When these are not in agreement,
   the control center sends signals to an effector.
   Chapter 5
   Answers to Concept Review
   Support, movement, protection, formation of blood cells, mineral storage.
   Red bone marrow is the site of blood cell production, specifically red blood cells,
   neutrophils, and platelets. Yellow bone marrow is a site of fat storage for energy
   used by the bone tissue.
   During growth, new cartilage is added to the outside surface of the plate (facing
   the ends of the bone). At the same time, cartilage on the inside surface of the
   plate (facing the center of the bone) is converted to bone. Thus, the bone grows
   in length as the growth plates “migrate” outward.
   Bones can slowly change shape over many years because how bone is deposited
   and resorbed depends on the forces, or stress, applied to the bone.
   Compressive stress on bones stimulates osteoblast activity in the areas of
   greatest stress, adding bone tissue to that area. Osteoclasts are stimulated to
   work on areas of lesser stress, thinning out these areas. The combination reforms
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   the bone in response to the stress on it, making the bone stronger and more able
   to handle the forces placed on it.
   Cervical, thoracic, lumbar.
   Spinal nerves not yet injured might be injured during a move, causing additional
   damage and even paralysis.
   Synovial joints are lined with hyaline cartilage that has more “give” to it than
   bone and can be repaired more easily. The joints are kept moist by a synovial
   membrane that maintains a sac of fluid within the joint to further cut down
   friction and prevent rubbing of the cartilage plates.
   Flexion decreases the angle of a joint. Extension increases the angle of a joint
   Osteoarthritis is an inflammation of a joint due to the degeneration of the joint
   over time. The cartilage wears out at a faster rate than it can be replaced.
   Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammation of the joint due to an autoimmune
   process. The person’s immune system is attacking the tissues of the joint.
   Chapter 6
   Answers to Concept Review
   Examples of muscles resisting movement are the maintenance of upright posture
   and the maintenance of the diameter of blood vessels against the pressure
   exerted by blood.
   When the origin end of a muscle is kept stationary and the muscle is shortened,
   the insertion end of a muscle moves toward the origin, causing a specific body
   movement.
   Calcium relays the signal from the T tubules, bringing the stimulus to the
   contractile proteins. The presence of the calcium on the actin molecule allows the
   cross-bridges to form between actin and myosin, causing contraction.
   The permanent stiffening of muscles after death is caused by depletion of ATP.
   ATP must be present for the myosin head to detach from actin, so in the absence
   of ATP the muscle remains in the contracted state.
   Insufficient ATP for contraction, and psychological factors such as discomfort or
   boredom of repetitive tasks.
   Summation is the increase in muscle force caused by increasing the rate of
   stimulation of motor units. Repeated nerve stimulation results in more calcium
   being present, which results in greater force generation.
   Heart rate is controlled at the level of the heart by certain cardiac cells that
   function as pacemakers. Although the heart rate is also influenced by nerves, the
   heart would still beat on its own even if all the nerves were severed.
   A reflex system assists in maintaining tone to skeletal muscles. As long as there
   is some stretching of the muscle, signals are sent to the spinal cord and random
   motor units are fired within the muscle to maintain tone. Tone in smooth muscle
   can be maintained without external activation.
   A motor unit consists of a single neuron and all of the muscle cells it innervates.
   The fewer the number of muscle cells in a motor unit, the greater the control
   because more motor units need to be fired to achieve the contraction desired. If
   more muscle cells are attached, the contraction is stronger but fine control is
   reduced.
   Creatine phosphate stored within the cell; glycogen stored within the cell;
   glucose and fatty acids supplied to the cell by the blood during aerobic
   metabolism.
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   Chapter 7
   Answers to Concept Review
   Transportation of all substances needed anywhere in the body; regulation of
   temperature, water volume, and pH; defense against infections and from
   excessive blood loss.
   Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, delivering it to tissues
   when a significant oxygen concentration gradient is present. Hemoglobin also
   carries some CO2 back to the lungs, where it is eliminated through respiration.
   Certain cells in the kidneys monitor the availability of oxygen. If the oxygen
   level drops, the kidney cells release the hormone erythropoietin. Erythropoitin
   stimulates the production of red blood cells by the red bone marrow.
   Hematocrit is the percentage of whole blood that consists of red blood cells
   (RBCs). Hematocrit is important because it is a relative measure of the oxygencarrying
   capacity of blood. A low hematocrit signals anemia.
   Damaged RBCs become trapped in the liver and spleen and are removed by
   phagocytic cells that break down the cell and process the hemoglobin. The iron
   is removed and the proteins are broken down, both for recycling within the body.
   The bilirubin derived from the heme is secreted into the intestines as part of bile,
   and ultimately excreted.
   Both neutrophils and eosinophils are phagocytic, but for different things.
   Neutrophils primarily attack bacteria and protect the human body from
   infection. Eosinophils phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes that are seen in
   allergic reactions.
   Damage occurs in a blood vessel, which stimulates platelets to form a temporary
   plug to stop blood loss through the damaged vessel. At the same time, the
   coagulation cascade is initiated, finally forming a fibrin clot at the site of the
   damage. The fibrin clot will stay in place long enough for tissue repair to occur.
   Blood Type Surface Antigen Plasma Antibody (ies)
   A A B
   B B A
   None A and B
   AB A and B None
   The immune system can construct antibodies to antigens that we do not have. A
   person classified as Rh negative does not have the Rh antigen. If this person is a
   pregnant woman and her child is Rh positive, it is possible that she might be
   exposed to the baby’s blood and develop immunity against the Rh antigen. If this
   occurs, her immune system will attack the RBCs of any subsequent Rh positive
   children she carries.
   Anemia can be present because of production problems, such as insufficient iron
   for hemoglobin synthesis, or inadequate Vitamin B12 for nucleic acid synthesis,
   as in pernicious anemia. Anemia may also be present due to an abnormal
   hemoglobin, as in Hemoglobin S causing sickle cell anemia. Blood may be lost
   from the body due to hemorrhage.
   Chapter 8
   Answers to Concept Review
   The heart is one muscle that cannot afford to experience fatigue! If it did, normal
   body functions would be compromised due to decreased blood delivery.
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   The walls of arteries and veins are comprised of the same three layers. The
   innermost layer (endothelium) is comprised primarily of endothelial cells and
   some supporting connective tissue. The middle layer is primarily smooth
   muscle, along with some collagen and elastic fibers. The outermost layer is
   mostly made of connective tissue. Arteries have a much thicker middle layer,
   compared to veins. Capillaries have only one layer (the endothelium).
   A blood pressure cuff is applied to the upper part of the arm, and the pressure
   meter is placed where it can be easily viewed. A stethoscope is placed on the
   inner surface of the elbow. The cuff is inflated and then slowly deflated while
   monitoring the stethoscope for tapping or thumping sounds and observing the
   pressure meter. The first sound is heard at systolic pressure. When sounds are
   no longer heard, that number is recorded as the diastolic pressure.
   The heart valves are one-way valves; they close when pressure falls within the
   heart chamber directly behind them, preventing backflow of blood.
   The pulmonary circuit carries oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich
   blood back to the heart. The systemic system carries oxygen-rich blood to the
   tissues of the body and oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
   Atrial and ventricular diastole take 0.4 second, and the ventricles fill with blood
   through gravity; the AV valves are open, and the semilunar valves are closed.
   Atrial systole takes 0.1 second; both atria contract, filling the ventricles; the
   semilunar valves are closed, and the AV valves are open. Ventricular systole
   takes 0.3 second; both ventricles contract, the AV valves close, the semilunar
   valves open, and blood leaves the heart. The closing of the AV valves causes the
   first sound (lub), and the closing of the semilunar valves at the end of ventricular
   systole causes the second sound (dub).
   The SA node initiates the electrical activity of the heart and sends a wave of
   depolarization through the atria. When the electrical activity reaches the AV node
   the AVA nodes directs the electrical activity down the interventricular septum to
   the ventricles. As a result, the ventricles contract in a coordinated fashion,
   forcing blood into the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
   The thick walls of the arteries allow pressure to be maintained while sending the
   blood around the body; this is not needed in veins. The distensibility of the veins
   allows for pooling of the blood. In effect, the veins serve as the volume reservoir
   for most of the blood.
   Epinephrine.
   Don't smoke; watch cholesterol levels; perform regular, moderate exercise;
   control blood pressure; maintain a healthy weight; screen for and control
   diabetes; avoid chronic stress.
   Chapter 9
   Answers to Concept Review
   Pathogens are organisms that come from outside our bodies and cause damage
   to tissues and biological processes. Examples include bacteria, such as
   Staphylococcus; viruses, such as HIV; fungi or yeasts, such as Candida albicans;
   protozoa, such as the cause of malaria; and prions, such as the cause of Mad
   Cow disease.
   Viruses cannot reproduce on their own. In order to reproduce they must enter a living cell and use its organelles to produce new viral DNA and proteins.
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   Prions are misfolded infectious proteins that can cause normal proteins within a cell to misfold as well. Ultimately this disrupts cell function and may result in cell
   death.
   The spleen helps remove old red blood cells and invading microorganisms; the thymus produces the hormones thymosin and thymopoietin, which cause T
   lymphocytes to mature; and the tonsils protect the throat by filtering out many
   of the microorganisms that are present.
   Redness, warmth, swelling, pain.
   Nonspecific defenses do not target specific pathogens. Instead, they appear in response to all sorts of health challenges. Specific defenses (such as immune
   responses) recognize and target only specific pathogens.
   An antigen is any material that can activate the production of antibodies and
   combine with them. All cells and viruses have identifying antigens on the surface
   of their membranes. During fetal development, our immune system learns which
   antigens are ours (or self) and will not make antibodies against them.
   Antibodies are made just against foreign antigens.
   Identification of each person’s cellular antigens as “self” occurs during embryonic
   development. In adulthood, then, our own immune systems generally ignore cells
   identified as “self”.
   When cytotoxic T cells locate and bind to a target cell, a protein called perforin
   is released and inserted into the plasma membrane of the target cell. This
   protein forms large pores or holes in the membrane, allowing water to enter.
   The target cell swells and may eventually burst.
   Vaccines are usually made from dead or weakened pathogens or from a specific
   antigen of that pathogen. When injected into a person, vaccines cause the
   person’s immune system to produce antibodies and memory cells against that
   antigen. Consequently, when the person is exposed to that specific live
   pathogen, his/her immune system is primed to mount a vigorous attack.
   Chapter 10
   Answers to Concept Review
   The nose warms and humidifies the incoming air; filters inhaled air and screens
   out foreign particles; is responsible for our sense of smell; serves as a resonating
   chamber for a distinctive voice.
   The larynx is larger and the vocal cords are longer in men. Men’s voices
   therefore have a lower pitch.
   Movement of cilia can be inhibited, leading to less clearing of the bronchial tree. Toxins in smoke also result in increased mucus production.
   Bronchioles are smaller, have no cartilage to support the airway, and have less smooth muscle than bronchi.
   Pressure goes down when the container is enlarged and up when the container is made smaller.
   The diaphragm contracts and flattens, expanding the volume of the chest cavity and causing the lungs to expand. Air comes in to fill the available space. If a deeper breath is needed, the external intercostals muscles pull the ribs up,
   expanding the chest even more—allowing more air to come in. To breathe out,
   the diaphragm and the chest muscles relax, causing the weight of the chest to
   compress the chest, making the space smaller and forcing air from the lungs.
   Partial pressure is the pressure of each individual gas in a mixture of gases.
   Diffusion of each gas depends on its partial pressure.
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   Approximately one-eighth of the air in the alveoli is actually exchanged with the
   atmosphere with each breath. Oxygen is constantly diffusing from the alveoli into
   the blood, decreasing the alveolar oxygen concentration.
   In the tissues, the CO2 waste that is formed during metabolism combines with
   water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The carbonic acid then dissociates into
   bicarbonate (HCO3
   -) and hydrogen ion (H+).
   Heart failure leads to high pulmonary vascular pressure, which in turn leads to an
   increase in interstitial fluid in the lungs and fluid within the alveoli. This fluid
   impedes the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the alveolar and
   capillary walls,
   Chapter 11
   Answers to Concept Review
   The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. It sends
   information to (and receives information from) the peripheral nervous system
   (PNS), which consists of all of the nerves that lie outside the CNS. The PNS
   collects information about the environment, sends it to the CNS and transports
   output from the CNS to muscles and glands.
   When a neuron receives a signal from another neuron or from a receptor, a small
   graded change in membrane potential occurs. When several signals are received
   at once or close in time, the graded potentials will summate, or be larger than
   just a single graded potential. If the potential crosses a critical threshold, an
   action potential will be generated.
   During the early phase of an action potential, sodium channels open and sodium
   diffuses into the neuron, causing membrane depolarization. During the second
   half of an action potential the sodium channels close, potassium channels open,
   potassium diffuses out of the neuron, and the membrane repolarizes.
   Neuroglial cells provide physical support and protection to neurons. In the
   peripheral nervous system, neuroglial cells called Schwann cells produce a
   lipoprotein called myelin which insulates the neuron, speeds up the transmission
   of impulses, and assists in axonal regeneration in the event of an injury.
   Neuroglial cells of the central nervous system are called oligodendrocytes.
   Oligodendrocytes also provide myelin, to insulate neurons and speed up
   transmission of impulses, but oligodendrocytes do not assist in regeneration.
   Neurotransmitters are required for an action potential in one cell to be
   transmitted to another cell. They are chemicals that are released by a neuron,
   diffuse across the synaptic gap, and attach to binding sites on the post synaptic
   cell.
   Hindbrain (movement and automatic functions), midbrain (vision and hearing),
   forebrain (emotions and conscious thought).
   Specific brain functions are located in specific portions of the brain. One area of
   the brain receives all visual signals, for example, while an entirely different area
   controls motor movements of your arm.
   “Rapid eye movement” (REM) sleep is the sleep phase when we dream. It is
   characterized by physiologic changes that include rapid movements of the eyes
   and increases in heart rate, respiration, and blood flow.
   Generally, when you get a bruise the bruised area swells. When the bruise (a
   hematoma) is beneath the hard skull (i.e is subdural), it cannot swell outward.
   Instead, it swells inward, exerting pressure on brain tissue. If it is severe enough
   it may interfere with cerebral function.
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   Spinal nerves travel up and down the spinal cord and leave the spinal cord at
   specific locations. Injury to the cord affects those spinal nerves below the point of
   injury, not above.
   Chapter 12
   Answers to Concept Review
   Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, chemoreceptors, -
   photoreceptors.
   In receptor adaptation, the sensory neuron stops sending impulses even though
   the original stimulus is still present. Oftentimes it is the unique structure of the
   receptor - for example the encapsulated endings of a Pacinian corpuscle – that
   allow it to adapt.
   Somatic sensations provide the brain with information about temperature, touch,
   vibration, pressure, pain, awareness of body movements and position.
   Touch, taste, hearing, smell, sight.
   Fast pain arises within a fraction of a second in response to injury from physical
   pressure, heat, light, or chemicals. Fast pain generally originates from receptors
   near the body surface. Slow pain originates in muscles or internal organs.
   Referred pain occurs when an internal receptor sends an impulse along the same
   neurons as surface pain. The brain cannot distinguish the two, so it assigns the
   pain to the surface.
   They transmit vibrations of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) caused by sound
   to a smaller membrane called the oval window.
   Skeletal muscle is found around the outside of the eye to control movement,
   while smooth muscle is found inside the eye to control automatic, focusing -
   functions.
   Rods are highly sensitive to even very dim light. In addition, several hundred
   rods may converge on a single nerve cell, further increasing our sensitivity to
   dim light. However, all rods have the same photopigment, so they are not used
   to distinguish colors. Cones are less sensitive to light. Only a few cones converge
   on a single neuron, greatly increasing visual acuity. Individual cones have one
   of three possible photopigments; this allows us to see in color.
   Absorption of light by rods “uses up” the light-sensitive form of the
   photopigment temporarily. After about 15 minutes in the dark, nearly all of the
   photopigment molecules have been converted back to their light-sensitive form
   again.
   Glaucoma is caused by a build-up of pressure in the aqueous humor, which
   causes compression of blood vessels in the eye. This in turn leads to a reduction
   in blood flow and nutrient delivery to the eye. If it is severe enough, glaucoma
   can lead to damage to the retina or optic nerve and eventually a loss of vision.
   Chapter 13
   ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex; TSH stimulates the thyroid gland; FSH and
   LH stimulate reproductive organs; prolactin affects the mammary glands and
   milk production; growth hormone has broad effects on growth.
   Hormones of the endocrine system reach nearly every cell in the body, whereas
   nerves innervate only specific cells. Hormones of the endocrine system act
   only on cells with specific receptors for that hormone.
   slower to act (seconds to months) than the nervous system (just a fraction of a
   second).
   Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble. They enter cells and activate certain genes,
   thereby affecting the synthesis of specific proteins. Nonsteroid hormones bind
   to cell membranes and either cause membrane channels to open or close, or
   cause the release of a a second messenger within the cell. These actions then
   turn specific cellular chemical reactions on or off, depending on the hormone.
   When norepinephrine appears in a synapse and affects the transmission of an
   impulse, it is a neurotransmitter. When it is in the blood being transported to
   other parts of the body, it is a hormone.
   In children, growth hormone stimulates the bone-lengthening activity of the
   cartilaginous growth plates in long bones. At adulthood, the sex steroids cause
   the growth plates to become calcified, at which point the growth plates can no
   longer be stimulated by growth hormone.
   The two thymus gland hormones, thymosin and thymopoietin, assist in the
   maturation of T cells. Because this function is largely complete by adulthood, it
   is no surprise that the thymus gland tends to shrink in adults, especially after
   age 30.
   The pineal has neural connections to the eyes, providing it with information
   about the amount of light in the environment.
   Histamine and nitric oxide are not considered true hormones because they are
   not secreted into the blood and they don’t travel to all cells and tissues in the
   body. They are considered local chemical messengers.
   Oxytocin.
   The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which helps regulate circadian or
   light/dark cycles in the body. Melatonin secretion goes up during the dark
   phase of our daily circadian cycle.
   Chapter 14
   Answers to Concept Review
   Major organs of the GI tract include: the mouth, which processes food for swallowing;
   pharynx & esophagus, which deliver food to the stomach; the stomach,
   which stores food, digests protein, and regulates delivery to the small intestine;
   the small intestine, which digests food and absorbs nutrients and water; and
   the large intestine, which absorbs nutrients and eliminates waste. Accessory
   organs aid in digestion and absorption, and include: salivary glands, which
   moisten food and begin digestion; the pancreas, which secretes digestive
   enzymes and bicarbonate; the liver, which produces bile and many chemical
   functions; and the gall bladder, which stores bile.
   Mechanical processing and movement, secretion, digestion, absorption,
   elimination.
   Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which initiates the breakdown of starch.
   Saliva also contains bicarbonate, which produces an alkaline pH in the mouth
   for optimum activity of amylase.
   Peristalsis is a long wave of relaxation/contraction that moves down the
   intestine, pushing food forward. Segmentation is a brief contraction of just a
   short segment of the intestine; its primary function is to mix food.
   Humans have 32 teeth.
   The three major functions of the stomach are: food storage (the stomach can
   expand to a capacity of about 3 liters); digestion, specifically protein digestion
   by pepsin and HCl; regulation of delivery of chyme to the small intestine.
   Most of the nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine.
   Fats, or lipids, contain 9 Calories/gram, proteins and carbohydrates each
   contain about 4 Calories/gram.
   About 1/2 to 2/3 of our daily caloric expenditure supports activities related to
   our BMR, such as breathing, doing the work of all cells, and carrying out organ
   functions. The remainder is for our normal minimal physical activities during
   the day, not counting exercise.
   Most vegetables do not contain the full range of amino acids required to build
   the protein molecules we need for life. Meat, however, does.
   Chapter 15
   Answers to Concept Review
   The kidneys regulate water levels and the concentrations of most electrolytes
   (ions), including hydrogen ions. The kidneys are also responsible for the
   excretion of nitrogenous wastes and for the rate of production of red blood cells
   in the bone marrow. All of these actions are essential for the maintenance of
   homeostasis.
   The kidneys produce urine, which is sent to the bladder for temporary storage.
   The urethra carries urine out of the body during urination.
   The glomerular capsule receives fluid that is filtered across the glomerular
   capillaries. The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs most of the filtered
   electroytes and water; the Loop of Henle reabsorbs some salt and water and
   creates the concentration gradient in the medulla that is required for water
   reabsorption; the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct reabsorb the last
   of the salt and water; in these two regions reabsorption is regulated by the
   hormones aldosterone (increases distal tubule and collecting duct reabsorption
   of salt) and ADH (increases distal tubule reabsorption of water).
   The vasa recta are long, thin blood vessels located in the medulla of the
   kidneys. They serve the loop of Henle and collecting ducts.
   The driving force for filtration of fluid is the blood pressure within the
   glomerular capillaries. Blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries is higher
   than it is in most capillaries, thereby facilitating filtration.
   Water reabsorption is regulated only in the collecting duct.
   The primary stimulus for the secretion of ADH is an increase in solute
   concentration of the blood (a decrease in water concentration), detected by the
   neurons in the hypothalamus of the brain.
   Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium by distal tubules and
   collecting ducts.
   Chronic renal failure is defined as long-term, irreversible loss of function of the
   kidneys, leading to at least a 60% reduction in functioning. Acute renal failure
   is short term and possibly correctable.
   Once a person is in chronic renal failure (i.e. there is no hope of recovery of the
   kidneys), dialysis may be required on a regular basis in order to mimic the
   function of the kidneys. In the long run, the patient will need a kidney
   transplant if he/she is ever to get off regular dialysis.
   All rights reserved.
   Chapter 16
   Answers to Concept Review
   Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland.
   Spermatogonia divide several times by mitosis, insuring a supply of primary
   spermatocytes. Meiosis produces secondary spermatocytes at the end of the
   first division and then spermatids with the second cell division. The haploid
   spermatids develop into mature sperm.
   Fertilization usually takes place in the oviduct (fallopian tube) several hours or
   even a day after intercourse.
   The uterine cycle averages 28 days. During days 1–5 (menstrual phase),
   estrogen and progesterone levels decline and the uterine lining degenerates,
   resulting in menstruation. During days 6–14 (proliferative phase), new follicles
   develop, estrogen increases, and the uterine lining proliferates. Ovulation
   occurs around day 14. During days 15–28 (secretory phase), estrogen and
   progesterone are secreted by the corpus luteum and the uterine lining thickens
   in preparation for implantation. If there is no pregnancy, the corpus luteum
   then degenerates and hormone levels drop. See Figure 16.7.
   The endometrium is breaking down. Some of it is reabsorbed by the body; the
   rest is expelled during the “period.” It does not break down during a pregnancy
   because high levels of progesterone maintain it.
   Four phases of sexual response occur in both men and women. The excitement/
   plateau phase involves stimulation by sight, sounds, and physical contact. In
   both sexes, neural reflexes result in dilation of blood vessels and blood flowing
   into specific areas, in men into the penis resulting in swelling, lengthening and
   stiffening of the organ. In women, blood flows into the labia, clitoris, and
   nipples and lubricating fluids are secreted from the vagina and labia. Orgasm in
   both men and women results in brief, intense pleasure with rhythmic and
   involuntary muscle contractions. In men, the seminal vesicles, epididymis,
   bulbourethral glands and prostate are contracted to secrete portions of semen.
   Skeletal muscles at the base of the penis force sperm and seminal fluids out of
   the urethra. Post orgasm results in a resolution phase with body parameters
   returning to normal. A refractory period occurs in men, which prevents an immediate erection and orgasm.
   Following a period of hormonal stimulation to encourage the maturation of eggs, several mature eggs are harvested from the woman using a needle guided by ultrasound. Sperm is obtained from the male by masturbation.
   Sperm and eggs are combined, and after several days when the eggs have begun to divide, several embryos may be inserted into the woman’s uterus via the vagina.
   HIV, hepatitis B, genital warts.
   Birth control options (* = some protection from STDs): abstinence*, surgical sterilization, hormonal methods, IUDs, diaphragms and cervical caps, chemical spermicides*, condoms*, rhythm method, withdrawal, morning-after pills, abortion.
   Health officials tend to worry most about STDs that cause significant disease in the community or even deaths, as opposed to those that are minor irritants or social embarrassments. By this measure, STDs of major concern would be HIV,
   syphilis, gonorrhea, hepatitis B.
   Chapter 17
   Answers to Concept Review
   During the S phase of cell division, the two single strands of the doublestranded DNA unwind and “unzip”, dissociating from each other.
   Complementary DNA nucleotides are then added to each single strand. DNA polymerase facilitates the process.
   Transcription occurs in the nucleus. Transcription is the process of making a single strand of RNA that is complementary to a single gene segment of DNA.
   Translation occurs in the cytoplasm. Translation is the process of making one or more proteins, using mRNA as the template, or recipe.
   Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence in a gene. They can be caused by mistakes made during DNA replication, or they can be caused by chemical or physical forces that damage DNA. DNA repair mechanisms “police” the DNA sequence and repair most mistakes.
   Prophase: nucleus breaks down, chromosomes condense and coil tightly; metaphase: chromosomes line up chromosomes at the equator of cell; anaphase: duplicated chromosomes separate and are pulled toward the two poles of the dividing cell; telophase: new nuclear membranes form, chromosomes uncoil.
   Each of two cell divisions of an oocyte in meiosis produces a one viable cell and a nonviable polar body. Each cell division of a primary or secondary spermatocyte produces two viable cells that go on to become sperm.
   Not all genes are used (expressed) all of the time. In fact, depending on the function of the cell and the proteins it needs to carry out that function, only a fraction of the genes will be expressed at any one time. Selective gene expression allows a cell to make only those proteins that will assist the cell in performing its functions and not make unnecessary proteins.
   During the 8 - 32-cell stage of embryonic development the levels of oxygen, nutrients, and cellular waste products may be different for cells in the middle of the ball, as opposed to those on the outside. These differences may cause differences in gene expression, ultimately leading to cellular differentiation and specialization. As the embryo develops, environmental factors may affect the development of tissues vital to the survival of the organism. Any alteration from normal at this early stage may have far-reaching consequences later in embryonic development.
   Ribosomes provide a supportive base for the linkage of messenger RNA and transfer RNA to assemble the protein. They also contain enzymes that help to link the amino acids together.
   Introns are portions of a DNA that do not contain a code for a gene, while exons do contain a code.
   Progression of a cell through its cycle is controlled at specific points by proteins called cyclins. Cyclins activate regulatory proteins that stimulate or inhibit events in the cell’s cycle. The most prominent checkpoints are at the end of G1,
   G2, and in metaphase. External factors that also influence cell cycles include availability of nutrients, hormones, and growth factors.
   Chapter 18
   Answers to Concept Review
   A malignant tumor is one that has metastasized, i.e. cells have broken away from the tumor, travelled to other sites in the body, and formed new tumors. A benign tumor will stay in one place, that is, it does not metastasize.
   All rights reserved. The nucleus may become larger, there may be less cytoplasm, and loss of specialized cellular function may occur. The cells lose the ability to adhere firmly to each other and can break away and spread to other parts of the body.
   A carcinogen causes a cell to take on the characteristics of a cancerous cell. In general, carcinogens damage DNA, hastening the process of mutations. Some of these mutations may be harmful, leading to cancer.
   There is no simple screening test for lung cancer and its early symptoms are relatively non-specific. In addition, cancer can take years to develop after exposure to cancer-causing agents. Indeed, we are just now seeing the full effects of the rise of in popularity of smoking over 50 years ago (review Figure
   18.7).
   Most skin cancers are caused by excessive exposure to UV radiation. The
   energy in UV radiation can damage the DNA of skin cells.
   Alcohol and high-fat diets and diets low in fiber and fruits and vegetables are
   thought to contribute to colon and rectal cancers.
   The immune system can recognize not only foreign cells, but our own cells that
   have become “different” in some way. The immune system can recognize
   certain cancerous cells and targets them for destruction.
   Mos tumors are detected by various imaging techniques, including X-rays, PET
   scans and MRI’s. Some types of tumors are detected by specific blood tests,
   such as the PSA test for prostate cancer.
   An antibody to a cancer cell antigen should target and bind only to that cancer
   cell type. If chemotherapy drugs could be attached to these antibodies, it
   might be an effective way to deliver the drugs directly to the cancerous cells
   and nowhere else.
   Know your family history; get regular cancer screenings for cancers with good
   screening tests, especially for those cancers that run in your family; learn self
   examination techniques; avoid direct sunlight during mid-day; control weight
   and diet; don’t smoke; use alcohol in moderation, if at all; stay informed about
   cancer and cancer detection.
   Chapter 19
   Answers to Concept Review
   One copy comes from each parent.
   A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the “recipe” for one or more proteins.
   Alleles are different forms of homologous genes. Different alleles are likely to have different effects (i.e. may result in different phenotypes) because they may cause slightly different proteins to be produced.
   Phenotype is what is expressed, what you see. Genotype is what is contained in the genes on the chromosomes, whether it is expressed (seen) or not. Phenotype is influenced by both genotype and environmental factors.
   Mendel established what are still some of the most basic principles of genetics, including the “Law of Segregation”, which holds that when gametes are formed in the parents, each gamete gets only one allele of a gene pair, and the “Law of Independent Assortment”, which is that (in most cases) the alleles of different genes are distributed to egg or sperm independently of each other during meiosis. This latter law is now only partly correct; in some cases genes that are close together on chromosomes do tend to be inherited together.
   Alterations of chromosome number can occur because of  on disjunction (failure of chromosomes to separate during mitosis or meiosis.) Alterations in structure All rights reserved.
   can be due to deletions or translocations of pieces of chromosomes before separation.
   Dominance; when there are two alleles, one is expressed in the phenotype (i.e. is dominant) and the other (the recessive allele) is not. Incomplete dominance; the phenotype is halfway between what would be expressed by each allele alone.
   Codominance; the products of both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype.
   Sexual reproduction is an opportunity to re-mix and re-combine the various alleles in the species’ gene pool. As a result, the offspring are not exactly like
   either parent, nor are they precisely in-between the two parents in phenotype.
   Sex-inked inheritance refers to inheritance patterns that depend on genes located on the sex chromosomes, which are quite different between males and females.
   Dominant alleles are always expressed over recessive alleles. If a dominant allele is lethal before reproductive age, it will not be passed on to the next generation. Dominant lethal alleles that do exist in the population tend to be those that do not cause death of the affected individual until after he/she has reproduced and may have passed the dominant lethal allele on to his/her offspring.
   Genes are the recipes for proteins that may act as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, or intracellular messengers. Groups of genes and their proteins may
   influence feeding, mating, learning, and possibly mood in some broad way. But so far there is no evidence that there is a “happiness gene” or a “criminal gene” or that “my genes made me do it!”.
   Chapter 20
   Answers to Concept Review
   Millions of copies of short, single-stranded DNA are made, and primers are added to one end. A mixture of the four nucleotides of DNA plus four altered, fluorescent-labeled nucleotides is added, with DNA polymerase to synthesize DNA. (Synthesis stops whenever the first altered nucleotide is added to any strand.) The synthesized strands are put through gel electrophoresis and scanned for the altered and fluorescent nucleotides arranged by size. The resulting graphic display represents the sequence of a single strand of DNA complementary
   to the original fragment of DNA.
   Restriction enzymes break the bonds between specific base pairs of DNA, while DNA ligase enzymes bind the fragments back together.
   1. Isolate the DNA plasmids and the human DNA; 2. cut both DNA’s with restriction enzymes; 3. mix the human DNA fragments with the cut plasmids; 4. add DNA ligase to connect the fragments; 5. introduce new plasmids into bacteria; 6. select the bacteria containing the hybrid plasmids and allow for reproduction.
   PCR is useful for amplifying a small sample of DNA for accurate identification. The original DNA sample is unwound by gentle heating. Primers, DNA polymerase and the four nucleotides of DNA are added, the mixture is cooled, and replication is accomplished. Repeating the heating and cooling cycle 20 times produces more than a million copies of the original material.
   A human gene can be inserted into bacteria using plasmids. The resultant transgenic bacteria will produce the human protein product of the human gene Bacteria are frequently used because of their use of plasmids to exchange genes and because of their short  reproductive cycle. They have been used in human All rights reserved.
   hormone production, including insulin, growth hormone, and erythropoietin.
   Genes for human proteins, such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) that is used as a clot buster, have also been implanted into bacteria. Vaccines may also be produced in this manner, such as the hepatitis B vaccine. Transgenic bacteria are also used to produce enzymes in industrial quantities.
   Transfer of the genes is more difficult in animals because they do not take up plasmids as do plant cells, In addition, cloning an animal from a single cell is more difficult than cloning plants from plant cells.
   Implantation of the corrected gene into the appropriate cells is very difficult in an organism with trillions of cells. Even if a correction could be made, it probably would not be passed on to the patient’s offspring, so the disease would be treated in just that one individual but would still persist in the gene pool.
   Genes have been experimentally introduced using retroviruses that incorporate their RNA into a host cell’s DNA through reverse transcription. The viruses can be introduced into tissue removed from a patient, then reintroduced, or the viruses can be injected directly into the patient.
   Gene therapy has been used to some level of success in patients with SCID, cystic fibrosis, and some cancers. Overall, though, progress in gene therapy has been slow, lagging far behind DNA sequencing and gene identification.
   Chapter 21
   Answers to Concept Review
   As soon as a sperm’s nucleus enters the egg, enzymes are released that make the zona pellucida impenetrable to all other sperm. This is important because a fertilized egg should have 46 chromosomes and only 46 chromosomes. An extra set of chromosomes would alter the normal progression of embryonic growth and differentiation.
   After six weeks of development, a gene on the Y chromosome gene called SRY is switched on. SRY carries the code for a protein called testis-determining factor, which directs the initial development of the testes. Shortly thereafter the testes begin to produce testosterone, which further stimulates the development of male ducts and genitalia. (The embryonic testes also produces a second hormone that suppresses development of female reproductive structures, ensuring that the embryo develops into a male.) If no Y chromosome is present, a female fetus develops.
   The placenta functions as a selective filter for materials passing between the mother and child. Nutrients, gases, antibodies, as well as metabolic waste from the child and drugs from the mother pass freely through the placenta. The placenta produces hCG, estrogen and progesterone. These hormones support the myometrium during the pregnancy.
   Stage 1: dilation of cervix to 10 cm, lasting 6–12 hours; Stage 2: expulsion of baby (birth), lasting less than one hour; Stage 3: afterbirth, passing of placenta, lasting half an hour.
   At birth and when the umbilical cord is clamped, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between mother and newborn cease. Very quickly, carbon dioxide levels in the fetus rise. The high carbon dioxide in the fetus causes the medulla of the infant’s brain to stimulate respiration.
   The immune system of a newborn is quite immature. The schedule of
   vaccinations is designed so that each vaccine is given after the immune system has developed adequately to respond to that particular vaccination.
   The pubertal period appears to be initiated by maturation of GnRH-secreting neurons in the hypothalamus. This stimulates the secretion of LH and FSH,
   initiating puberty in both sexes.
   One hypothesis is that there may be an internal mechanism that determines the timing of cell death. A second hypothesis is that accumulated cell damage or errors may eventually limit cells’ abilities to repair themselves. A third hypothesis is that there may be a decline in the function of a critical body system, leading to the decline of other systems.
   Most of it is due to a reduction of deaths due to accidents and disease. It does not appear that the maximum length of human life has been extended much (yet.)
   Not all cells, organs, and organ systems die at the same time, so which system’s death do you use to define the irreversible death of the individual? Currently, most clinical definitions of death attempt to assess the function of the entire brain including the brainstem, because without these, functions of the other organ systems cannot be maintained.
   Chapter 22
   Answers to Concept Review
   1. Descent over time; 2. genetic modification; 3. unpredictable and natural.
   Fossils are preserved remnants of organisms. They consist of bones, teeth, shells, and occasionally spores and seeds. If they are covered soon after death by layers of sediment or ash, these become mineralized and rock-like.
   Comparative anatomy and embryology, comparative biochemistry, biogeography.
   Individuals and species that are best suited for their environments by virtue of their genetic makeup are more likely to survive to reproductive age and to reproduce. So natural selection encourages changes in the gene pool that are likely to favor survival.
   Genetic drift refers to random changes in allele frequency due to chance events.
   Gene flow refers to the geographical redistribution of alleles. The genes in a particular population can be dramatically influenced by migrations, for example,
   that are not random events.
   Before about 4 billion years ago the earth was hot and dry. As it cooled, water vapor condensed as rain, water appeared, and the oceans began to form. Current thinking is that simple organic molecules arose spontaneously and were dissolved in the sea. Eventually the first self-replicating molecules, probably related to
   single-stranded RNA, formed on templates of clay near the shoreline. That led to DNA and proteins. At some point these self-replicating molecules became enclosed in a lipid-protein membrane (a primitive cell membrane). The rest is (a long) history of evolution.
   At some point in evolution, primitive photosynthetic organisms (plants) began using carbon dioxide and water to make their own energy-containing molecules, releasing free oxygen into the environment in the process. Oxygen proved to be toxic to many primitive anaerobic organisms. It also broke down the energy containing
   molecules in the sea. New cells and organisms evolved that could
   harness and use the energy released by reactions between oxygen and energy producing molecules. This is exactly what modern animals do.
   Hominidae walk upright and have enlarged brains.
   Modern humans, or Homo sapiens probably first appeared in Africa about 140,000 to 100,000 years ago. About 50,000 years ago it appears that they migrated through what is now Yemen and then to the rest of the planet.
   Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 1301 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA 94111.
   All rights reserved.
   With modern transportation and communication, races are no longer isolated in their original areas. History has shown that where races are brought together,
   they tend to interbreed. It may not even take 100,000 years for all humans to share essentially the same worldwide gene pool!
   Chapter 23
   Answers to Concept Review
   An ecosystem is a community of organisms and the physical environment in which they live.
   The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the population that the system can support indefinitely.
   Underdeveloped countries with very little industrial base generally start with poor  living conditions and a high death rate. When living conditions improve the death rate generally declines, the birth rate rises, and the population increases rapidly.
   Over time the birth rate slowly declines until it equals the death rate. At this point the population is stable. Regions expected to gain the most population in the next 40 years include most of the countries in middle Africa, Latin American, and Asia. Regions expected to gain the least include North America and northern Europe.
   Zero population growth is that point in a population at which births equal deaths. Zero population growth can be achieved by increasing the death rate (not a good idea) or decreasing the birth rate. Decreasing the birth rate may not be easy in some countries because of both social and economic factors.
   A climax community represents the final and most stable community possible, given the physical conditions of the environment. Climax communities are generally the most efficient in terms of energy usage and the most varied in terms of numbers of species present. If disturbed, climax communities such as old-growth forests or grassy prairies may take a long time to recover.
   A constant supply of energy is necessary because according to the second law of thermodynamics, whenever energy changes form or is transferred (as it is in the chemical reactions that sustain life’s processes) some energy is lost, or wasted.
   New energy is needed to replace the wasted energy. Ultimately, that energy comes from the sun.
   Producers such as plants capture the energy in sunlight and use it, along with carbon dioxide and water, to make energy-storage molecules such as sugars and starches. Consumers such as animals use the stored energy found in plants or other animals.
   Water constantly cycles between the atmosphere, ocean, and land. Water evaporates from the ocean or lakes into the atmosphere and falls onto the land and oceans as rain. Water is a universal solvent for many of the elements used by living organisms.
   Plants combine carbon dioxide with water during photosynthesis, creating carbohydrates and releasing oxygen. Plants and animals then break down carbohydrates through aerobic respiration, synthesizing other complex molecules.
   This process produces carbon dioxide again. Fossil fuels and the carbon in the shells of organisms represent a large reservoir pool of carbon.
   Weathering of rocks makes phosphate available in soil where it either runs off with surface water to supply aquatic ecosystems or is taken up by plants.
   Consumers ingest the phosphate that has been synthesized by producers, and when these organisms die and decompose, the phosphate ends up as sediment again.
   
   Chapter 24
   Answers to Concept Review
   The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere absorbs significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. If this radiation were to reach the earth’s surface it would cause increased mutations resulting in increased cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and possibly suppress our immune systems.
   Acid precipitation corrodes metal and stone and damages forests and aquatic ecosystems. Smog results in an increased incidence of chronic respiratory illnesses, such as asthma and emphysema.
   Human activities pollute the water supply with untreated sewage, chemicals from industry, pesticide runoff, fertilizer from both farms and yards, and petroleum products from a variety of sources. All of these pollutants can and do end up in Earth’s fresh water supply, and many of them later end up in the oceans.
   Pollution allows gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and synthetic gases made from chlorofluorocarbons to escape into the atmosphere and mix with the normal atmospheric gases (primarily water vapor, nitrogen, and oxygen). These polluting gases contribute to the insulating effect of
   the atmosphere and trap heat radiating from the earth, resulting in increased temperatures.
   Each “higher” animal in a food chain tends to accumulate toxins in their tissues to much higher concentrations than were found in the animals they ate for food.
   Therefore, the highest concentrations of toxins will occur in animals higher up in the food chain.
   Sources of energy include fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas; nuclear energy; hydroelectric power; wind power; biomass fuels such as wood or methane produced from dung; and of course the original source of all power, solar power.
   Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms on Earth; in the broadest sense it is a measure of ecological “health”. A lack of biodiversity may limit our diet choices, reduce our ability to discover new medicines, and even the affect the quality of the air we breathe, since the oxygen in air is provided by a rich variety of plants.
   Sustainable development is best described by a statement from the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. It is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their economic needs”. Reaching the level of sustainable development as soon as possible only makes sense, because the longer we delay
   the more expensive it will become to meet the economic needs of future generations. We can consume less, recycle more, encourage sustainable agriculture, lower the world’s fertility rate, and reduce rural poverty.
   Chapter 10
   In every breath, the first air to be exhaled was the last air to enter in the respiratory passageways (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles); it did not participate in gas exchange at all. With a bigger the exhaled breath, more of the exhaled air comes from the alveoli, where gas exchange takes place. So a larger exhaled breath will give a higher (and more correct) reading of the level of alcohol in the blood and alveolar air than several shallow breaths.
   At the moment of birth, the lungs are not inflated. They inflate when the baby takes its first breath and starts to cry. If the baby had been stillborn there would be no air in the lungs; if it was alive for at least a few moments after birth there would be air in the lungs.
   The cilia are responsible for moving mucous up and out of the lungs. If they are damaged or not functioning then the mucous will build up over time. More and more dust particles and airborne bacteria will remain in the lungs. This increases the chances of pathogens residing in the lungs and causing an infection.
   Inflammation causes swelling and sometimes a buildup of mucous. If the area around the vocal cords becomes swollen or there is mucous buildup then it becomes difficult to create or control the vibrations of the vocal cords, and it is these vibrations that normally produce speech.
   A blow to the stomach would force organs like the stomach upwards into the diaphragm. This would result in a forced exhalation of air from the lungs. Sometimes this quick impact stretches a network of nerves in the abdomen, called the solar plexus, which causes a sustained contraction (spasm) of the diaphragm muscle. Essentially it’s a diaphragm cramp, like a muscle cramp in a leg. Eventually the diaphragm will relax and then be able to contract again. Breathing would resume.
   A hole in the chest wall has the effect of equalizing the pressure in the pleural cavity with the pressure outside the chest cavity. Normally the pressure in the pleural cavity is lower than atmospheric pressure (and the air pressure within the lungs), and it is the difference between pressure in the pleural cavity and atmospheric pressure that keeps the very elastic lungs inflated. A person will be unable to breathe on his/her own with a pneumothorax. Generally a tube is inserted through the wound so that air can be removed from the pleural cavity to reinflate the lung.
   The main effect of hyperventilation is that too much carbon dioxide is blown off. The loss of carbon dioxide upsets the acid/base balance of the blood and leads to a condition called respiratory alkalosis. The respiratory alkalosis is causing the person’s symptoms. The solution is to have the person breathe into a paper bag, because they rebreathe previously exhaled air that is high in carbon dioxide. If no paper bag is available, try to get them to slow their breathing or hold their breath 
   What can you do to reduce Global Warming?
   1. Reduce. Reuse. Recycle
   2. Use less heat and air conditioning
   3. Change a light bulb to CFL (compact fluorescent light
   4. Drive less and Drive smart
   5. Buy energy efficient products
   6. Use less hot water
   7. Use the “off” switch
   8. Plant a tree
   9. Get a report card from your utility company
   10. Get others to conserve
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   The overall goal of health science is the improvement of human and animal health through scientific research. Read on for more information regarding this discipline. Schools offering Public Health degrees can also be found in these popular choices.

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CARE OF YOUR LIFE!  AND    THE ENVIRONMENT

No plastic containers in microwaves.

 Depression It’s a depressive disorder that lasts more than a couple of days and interferes with daily life, normal functioning, and causes pain for both the person with the disorder and loved ones.

Types of Depression:

<<(LESS THEN)18.5 Underweight

Proteins are found all over the body and carry out many vital bodily functions. Examples include many hormones, enzymes, antibodies, etc.
There are 20 amino acids important in biology. 9 of these amino acids we must obtain from foods and are called “essential amino acids”.

(2) grains (whole grains, corn, pasta products), and
(3) nuts and seeds.

 ( lbs ÷ 2.2lb/kg)

Cholesterol - is a soft, waxy substance found among the lipids (fats) in the bloodstream and in all your body's cells Trans fatty acids (trans fat) are produced when polyunsaturated oils are hydrogenated, a process which entails adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats to make them more solid.

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More Than a Victory, the Decision Today Was a Mandate for Us to Act ...an end zone dance from Michael Moore

Dear Friends,

Even though it's been a few hours now, I'm guessing you're still pinching yourself to make sure you're not dreaming. But yes, it happened. At 10:07 this morning, the conservative Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, John Roberts, not only joined with the liberal justices to completely uphold almost every single part of the Obama health care law, he wrote the majority opinion himself! In fact, he went even further. When he realized that the government had poorly made its constitutional case to the court, he went searching for a clause in their argument and the constitution that would give him the justification he needed to back the administration and to insure that his decision would hold up legally. In other words, even though he is on the opposite side of the political fence, he wrote the Dems' paper for them. Stunning. 

The other four justices? They didn't just vote to overturn the individual mandate part of the law, they all voted to kill the entire Act. 

The media is already spending much time talking about the mandate being the "centerpiece of the law," but the real news is that if you ever have a pre-existing condition, you cannot now be denied insurance. If you are a young adult without health insurance, you can now stay on your parents' plan until age 26. The insurance company can no longer say there is a lifetime cap to your coverage. The insurance companies are now required to spend 85 cents out of every dollar they take in on actual reimbursement for your health care – not on profit or "administrative costs" (some companies have been taking over a 30% cut; Medicare's total percentage of their budget for administrative costs: 2%).

I know that our side is not used to victories and so we're not quite sure how to respond when we get one out of the blue. For some of us, the first inclination is to point out just how weak the Obama law actually is, that it doesn't provide true universal health care (26 million will STILL be uninsured), and that it leaves control of the system in the hands of the vultures, otherwise known as the health insurance companies. The individual mandate was a huge gift to the private insurance companies, guaranteeing them billions more from millions of new customers. And many of the key provisions of this law don't even take effect until 2014 – and if the Republicans win in November, you can kiss all of that goodbye.

So, yes, the bill is highly flawed and somewhat wrong-headed – but what it IS is a huge step in the right direction. And today's court decision cements that. The right wing knows this and they are probably unraveling in some not-so-pretty ways right now. And that's why today is a great day. The Right has been smacked down by one of their own! They know what we all know — that the path of history has been, and will continue to move toward the basic human right that all people are entitled to see a doctor and NOT have to worry about losing their home because they can't afford to pay the medical bills. Those days are over, or will be soon, and that is where civilization is headed. It's not headed back to the days of Oliver Twist. Today's victory is momentum, it's forward motion, and we WILL have true universal health care in this country in the not too distant future.

So take some time tonight to celebrate; this is a victory for the people. Actually, more than a victory, it is a mandate that all of us must now make sure that a second-term Obama continues to move the ball down the field, toward a system like they have in every other First World country on the planet. He simply has to improve Medicare and then expand it to every citizen in the country. The countries that do this, their people live an average of two to four years longer than we do. Is there a reason anyone doesn't want an extra four years of their lives? Or that our babies would have a better chance of surviving their first year like they do in the 48 countries that have a better infant mortality rate than we do? Exactly who is opposed to this? You'd have to be a bit…crazy.

And that, I've come to believe, is the true divide in this country. It's not blue state vs red state, liberal vs conservative, Democrat vs Republican. The split we have in America can be boiled down in its simplest form to this: On one side are the people who believe Adam and Eve rode on dinosaurs 6,000 years ago – and then there's everyone else. On that first side are the people who've been fed a diet of fear and lies and hate. And who is feeding them? The 1%. The richest people in the country, the ones who aren't done with us yet because they still don't have enough wealth, have done their best to dumb down the population through destroying our educational system and using media to provide them with a vastly distorted sense of reality. The rich's only obstacle is that they only hold 1% of the votes in the country. So they have to try to get a slim majority of Americans to vote their way. And fear, plus keeping them stupid, usually works.

So that's the battle ahead of us: Organizing and mobilizing the majority of Americans to push for true universal health care, Medicare for All. At one time, back in Illinois, that was the position held by Barack Obama. He will not make this happen on his own. He will only be able to do it when the mass of American people rise up and demand it. Demand it. Why not start tonight?

Five years ago this week, my health care documentary, Sicko, opened in theaters across the country. I have spent the better part of the decade on this issue, and for me, personally, fully aware of the current law's limitations, I am very happy with today's news – not because of its specifics or nuances, but because it is a road sign, and that sign points in the correct, humane and sane direction. THAT makes this a great day.

Yours,

Michael Moore
MMFlint@MichaelMoore.com

@MMFlint

MichaelMoore.com

Source: World Health Organization

Social Responsibility for Health

Social Responsibility for Health – is translated in the decisions and actions of the decision-makers in both public and private sector to pursue policies and practices which promote and protect health. Social Responsibilities for health is lacking when policies and practices pursued by the private and public sectors are of the kind that harm the individuals, families, communities and the environment.

Morbidity – the relative incidence of disease

Secondary Prevention

Primary Prevention - includes efforts to control the underlying cause or condition that results in disability. Examples include (a) maternal antiretroviral therapy to reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and (b) fortification of the food supply to prevent birth defects such as spina bifida and iodine deficiency disorders.

Tertiary prevention refers to rehabilitation and special educational services to mitigate disability and improve functional and participatory or social outcomes once disability has occurred and to prevent death.

2. Overweight and obesity

3. Tobacco use

4. Substance use

5. Responsible sexual behavior

6. Mental health

7. Injury and violence

(Goal is greater than 40).

The Greenhouse Effect: the insulating effect of atmospheric greenhouse gases (e.g., water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) is part of the gaseous layer that encircles the earth.

US Sea Level Trends Future Climate Changes: Temperature

Erupción del volcán Tungurahua en Ecuador   Imágenes del cráter del volcán

http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/icon-skins-free/id433139808?mt=8

http://www.opensecrets.org/

http://bigthink.com/

http://www.copydesk.org/

http://www.wordreference.com/

http://www.dorsey.com/eu_sec_effective_proxy_100510/

http://www.uopeople.org/groups/tuition-free-education

http://www.nanex.net/FlashCrashFinal/FlashCrashSummary_Table1.html

http://www.wordreference.com/

http://www.tubreveespacio.com/poemas_para%20mi%20gran%20amor.htm

http://www.pcworld.com/#new

http://www.uopeople.org/groups/tuition-free-education

http://www.quantumjumping.com/

http://www.smuhsd.org/ourschools

http://www.ropartshow.com/ROP_Art_Show_2011/home/home.html

http://blogs.siliconvalley.com/gmsv/

http://www.lahora.com.ec/

USE OF BOTTLE TOPS TO SEAL A BAG.....

 WHAT A GREAT IDEA. NO MORE TWIST TIES OR RUBBER BANDS.

This method is WATER PROOF AND AIR TIGHT. GREAT!

The guy who first thought of the idea should be given an award for originality!!!

 Seal Plastic Bags with Old Bottle Caps

Cut up a disposable water bottle and keep the neck and top, as in photo.

 Insert the plastic bag through the neck and screw the top to seal.

The bag is made to be air-tight, such that water will not leak, the secret lies with the top and screw cap!

This is a great idea to share.

Good for us and the environment too.

Zip-top bags are great, but sometimes you buy something in bulk and you're stuck with an unsealable bag. Home-centric blog Re-Nest shows us an easy way to give these bags an airtight seal with an old water bottle.

All you need to do is cut off the top of the bottle and take off the cap. Push the bag through the bottle neck, fold it over the edges, and twist the cap back on. Now, your bag has an air and watertight seal, and you didn't have to waste the bag...

http://www.pandora.com/#!/stations/play/798521058448134711

http://www.nbcbayarea.com/investigations/series/children-in-the-field/Bay-Area-Children-in-the-Field-164621746.html

California Regulator Eyes Tracking of Fracking Chemicals.       Two more articles indicating movement toward the regulation of fracking.

California Assembly panel OKs three measures to halt fracking for more study

more here: 

http://www.sacbee.com/2013/04/30/5383425/capitol-alert-trio-of-california.html#storylink=cpy

California Regulator Eyes Tracking of Fracking Chemicals

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-01/california-regulator-eyes-tracking-of-fracking-chemicals.html

http://hbi.ucalgary.ca/

HAND, FOOT AND MOUTH SYNDROME
(Coxsackie virus)


WHAT IS IT? Hand, foot and mouth syndrome is a mild illness that is caused by the Coxsackie virus. Symptoms include sores in the mouth followed by a blistery rash on the hands and feet. Symptoms may also include a mild fever, sore throat, stomachache and diarrhea. The child typically gets better within a week.

HOW IS IT SPREAD? Coxsackie virus is usually spread when stool gets onto or into hands, objects, surfaces, food or water and then gets into another person’s mouth. Coxsackie virus commonly spreads in infant and toddler childcare from not washing hands well after diapering and toileting, and before food preparation. Less commonly, it may spread by saliva; by kissing on the lips; and by sharing food, eating utensils and mouthed toys.

WHEN IS IT CONTAGIOUS? Although the Coxsackie virus can be shed in the stool for weeks after the illness, it is most contagious in the first week of the symptoms when the mouth sores are present. By the time the hand and foot rash appears, the illness is less contagious. Another child may develop the illness within 3 to 6 days after being exposed.

HOW IS IT DIAGNOSED AND TREATED? Hand, foot and mouth syndrome is diagnosed by observing the typical symptoms. Usually, no treatment is needed and the child gets better on his/her own within a week.

SHOULD THE CHILD STAY HOME? A child with hand, foot and mouth syndrome does not need to stay home as long as he is feeling (lesion free and without fever for at least 24 hours) well enough to participate in the program’s activities.

HOW CAN WE LIMIT THE SPREAD?
• Wash hands well after diapering and toileting and before cooking and eating.
• Clean and disinfect diapering areas, mouthed toys and dining tables after each use.
• Clean and disinfect toileting areas, hand-washing sinks and telephone receivers daily.
• Use sprinklers instead of wading pools. Use individual water-play basins instead of water-play tables.

District School Nurse.

Síndrome de Mano, Pie y Boca
(Virus Coxsackie)

¿QUÉ ES? El síndrome de mano, pie y boca es una enfermedad leve causada por el virus coxsackie. Los síntomas incluyen llagas en la boca seguida por un sarpullido con ampollas en las manos y pies. Los síntomas pueden incluir una fiebre leve, dolor de garganta, dolor de estómago y diarrea. El niño generalmente se mejora en una semana.

¿CÓMO SE ESPARCE? El virus Coxsackie generalmente se esparce cuando las deposiciones están en contacto con las manos, objetos, superficies, comida o agua y luego se introduce en la boca de otra persona. El virus Coxackie se esparce comúnmente en los lugares de cuidados de infantes y niños pequeños, por no lavarse bien las manos después de cambiar los pañales o aseo después de usar el baño, y antes de preparar la comida. Menos común es la transmisión, por saliva; besos en la boca; compartir comida, utensilios para comer y juguetes que se ponen en la boca.

¿CUÁNDO ES CONTAGIOSO? Si bien el virus coxsackie puede encontrarse en las disposiciones por semanas después de la enfermedad, este es más contagioso en las primeras semanas de los síntomas cuando hay llagas presentas en la boca. La enfermedad es menos contagiosa, cuando desaparece el sarpullido de las manos y los pies. Otro niño(a) puede desarrollar la enfermedad dentro de los 3 a 6 días después de haber estado expuesto.

¿CÓMO SE DIAGNOSTICA Y TRATA? El síndrome de mano, pie y boca se diagnostica observando los síntomas típicos. Generalmente, no se necesita tratamiento y el niño(a) se mejora por sí mismo dentro de la semana.

¿DEBERÁ EL NIÑO(A) QUEDARSE EN LA CASA? Un niño(a) con el síndrome de mano, pie y boca no necesita quedarse en la casa, siempre que se sienta lo suficientemente bien para participar en las actividades del programa.

¿CÓMO PODEMOS LIMITAR PARA QUE NO SE EXPANDA?
• Lavarse bien las manos después de cambiar los pañales y usar el baño, y antes de cocinar o comer.
• Limpiar y desinfectar cada vez que se usa, la zona donde se cambian los pañales, juguetes que se ponen en la boca, y mesas donde se come.
• Limpiar y desinfectar diariamente las áreas del baño, el lavabo, y el auricular del teléfono.
• Usar el sistema de rociadores en vez de piscinas portátiles para niños. Usar palanganas individuales para jugar con agua en vez de mesas.

Enfermero de Distrito Escolar