Margoth B.G

Margoth B.G

Higher power of the universe!

DIVINITY, please heal within me these painful memories and ideas that are causing negative feelings of disgust and anger inside me. I am Sorry, I Love You, Forgive me, thank you!

Higher Power of the Universe, Higher Power in the Universe, Mayor Power in the Universe. Please take good care of my conscience, unconsciousness, my physical, mental, and spiritual in my present. Protect all members of my family, especially my children and my husband.

Father, Mother, Divine, and Creators Children, all in one, if my family my relatives and ancestors offended their family, relatives and ancestors in thoughts, words and actions from the beginning of our creation to the present. We ask for your forgiveness. Let this be cleaned to purify and released. Cut out all the wrong energies, memories and negative vibrations and transmute these unspeakable energies into pure light and so be it done.

Divine intelligence, heal inside me painful memories in me I are producing this affliction. I am sorry, forgive me, I love you, thank you. So be it! Thank you! Margoth.

DIVINIDAD, por favor sanar dentro de mí estos dolorosos recuerdos e ideas que están causando sentimientos negativos como el disgusto o enojo dentro de mí. Lo sentimos Te Amo Gracias Perdóname.

Poder Superior del Universo, Poder Mayor en el Universo, Poder Alcalde en el universo. Por favor cuida y protege a mi conciencia, Subconsciencia, físico, mental, espiritual y mi presente. Proteger a todos los miembros de mi familia, especialmente a mis hijos y a mi esposo.

Padre, Madre, Divina, e Hijos Creadores, todo en uno, si mi familia mis parientes y antepasados ofendieron a su familia, parientes y antepasados en pensamientos, palabras y acciones realizadas desde el principio de nuestra creación hasta el presente. Pedimos su perdón. Que esto sea limpiado para purificarlo y liberado. Corta todas las energías erradas, recuerdos y vibraciones negativas y transmutar estas energías indecibles en pura luz y que así sea hecho. Inteligencia divinidad, sana dentro de mí los dolorosos recuerdos en mí que me están produciendo esta aflicción. Lo siento, perdóname, te amo gracias. Que así sea! ¡Gracias! Margoth.


my life

my life

Wednesday, February 25

SOCIOLOGY




Sociology 


http://www.globalministries.org/zimbabwe


California Dream Act of 2011
Myths & Facts

Myth #1 – All Dream Act students are illegal immigrants


The Facts: Dream Act students must meet the requirements of AB 540 law found in Education Code § 68230.5(a). Two groups of students potentially meet those requirements: (1) U.S. citizens who have attended and graduated from a CA high school, but don’t meet state residency requirements, and (2) undocumented students whose parents brought them to the U.S. when they were minors, and who attended and graduated from a CA high school.

Myth #2 – State grants are being taken away from legal U.S. citizens
The Facts: The Cal Grants A & B for which Dream Act students are eligible are entitlements. Every California high school graduate (or the equivalent) who meets the qualifications receives an award.

Myth #3 – Dream Act financial aid is a waste of state resources, because these students will not be able to work once they leave college

The Facts: As stated under Myth #1, a portion of Dream Act students are U.S. citizens, and there are no occupational restrictions on them, except as pertain to general economic conditions.

The Facts: All undocumented Dream Act students must file an affidavit stating they have or intend to (as soon as they are able) apply to legalize their immigration status as a condition of the AB 540 and AB 131 laws. That legal process may result in permanent residency before the students leave college or shortly thereafter.

The Facts: The U.S. Congress has attempted to pass various federal DREAM Acts with bipartisan support. The federal Act would create a pathway to permanent residency and work authorization. That law may be put into place before the students leave college or shortly thereafter.

The Facts: For all postsecondary students, the college experience expands knowledge, identity and community; develops workforce skills; and builds educated and engaged residents and citizens.

Myth #4 – Dream Act Cal Grants can only be used at California public colleges and universities .

The Facts: Dream Act Cal Grants can be used at any eligible Cal Grant participating institution. Click here to search for an eligible Cal Grant college or university.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wFrAny77UY

HOW TO GET THE MOST OUT OF STUDYING COGNITIVE PRINCIPLES FOR OPTIMIZING LEARNING.

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/the-sociological-perspective/deducing-with-sociological-imagination


http://illinois.edu/blog/view/25/3820?ACTION=POST&displayOrder=desc&displayType=search&displaySearch=free,country&displayColumn=created&displayCount=1

Origins of sociologyhttp://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/play-in-mind/201303/i-love-the-gay-eastertide
Traditional to modern
agrarian to Industrial to industrial
MARX, WEBER, DURHAM
They understood that this changes are fundamental break to transformation  of the world

"Sociology comes form Europe"
1914 MODERNITY: THE WAY PEOPLE FEEL, ACT, ETC....
1814 Mostly Familiar
1614 Less technology, sensitivity's and religious!!
Basic fundamental assumptions were there.
1514 - 1314 is the same religious.
Traditional society: in pre-modern societies, the ends of life are given at the beginning of the life. people do thins in their generation so that the same thing will continue to be done.
VS
IN MODERN SOCIETIES: THE ENDS LIFE ARE NOT GIVEN AT THE BEGINNING OF LIFE!!!

Weber:Disenchantment of the world fights form reality. Tendency to fantasize, addicted to staff. if you do not know yourself. you will be addicted. modernity does compulsive


Durham: Loss of solidarity tradition


Marx: Loss of control of means of production
you will be depress and isolated.


Calvinism "calling" a belief that God has chosen a specific occupation for each person. Believes to be a good person be a good religious person etc. A good teacher, pilot etc. but you have to find it...
" I have to figure it out"  These beliefs brings a lot of questions in society. The best way to know if you were to be elected was to be materially successful in your vocation.

"the iron cage"

Predestination. A Belief that  God has already chosen who is allowed into heaven.



Charitable Compensation

Claim:   Article compares the salaries of top executives of several large charitable organizations.

MOSTLY OUTDATED AND INACCURATE
Examples:

[Collected via e-mail, October 2010]

Keep these facts in mind when "donating". As you open your pockets for yet another natural disaster, keep the following facts in mind; we have listed them from the highest (worse paid offender) to the lowest (least paid offender).

The worst offender was yet again for the 11th year in a row is, UNICEF - CEO, receives $1,200,000 per year, (plus use of a Royal Royce for his exclusive use where ever he goes, and an expense account that is rumoured to be well over $150,000.) Only pennies from the actual donations goes to the UNICEF cause (less than $0.14 per dollar of income).

The second worst offender this year is Marsha J. Evans, President and CEO of the American Red Cross... for her salary for the year ending in 2009 was $651,957 plus expenses. Enjoys 6 weeks - fully paid holidays including all related expenses during the holiday trip for her and her husband and kids. including 100% fully paid health & dental plan for her and her family, for life. This means out of every dollar they bring in, about $0.39 goes to related charity causes.

The third worst offender was again for the 7th time was, Brian Gallagher, President of the United Way receives a $375,000 base salary (U.S. funds), plus so many numerous expense benefits it's hard to keep track as to what it is all worth, including a fully paid lifetime membership for 2 golf courses (1 in Canada, and 1 in the U.S.A.), 2 luxury vehicles, a yacht club membership, 3 major company gold credit cards for his personal expenses...and so on. This equates to about $0.51 per dollar of income goes to charity causes.

Fourth worst offender who was also again in the fourth spot, for every year since this information has been made available from the start 1998 is amazingly yet again, World Vision President (Canada) receives $300,000 base salary, (plus supplied - a home valued in the $700,000 - $800,000 dollar value range, completely furnished, completely paid all housing expenses, including taxes, water/sewer, telephone/fax, HD/high speed cable, weekly maid service and pool/yard maintenance, fully paid private schooling for his children, upscale automobile and an $55,000 personal expense account for clothing/food, with a $125,000 business expense account). Get this, because it is a "religious based" charity, it pays, little to no taxes, can receive government assistance and does not have to declare were the money goes. Only about $0.52 of earned income per dollar is available for charity causes.

Of the sixty some odd "charities" we looked at, the lowest paid (President/C.E.O/Commissioner) was heading up a charity group right here in Canada. We found, believe it or not, it was......

The Salvation Army's Commissioner Todd Bassett receives a salary of only $13,000 per year (plus housing) for managing this $2 Billion dollar organization. Which means about $0.93 per dollar earned, is readily available and goes back out to local charity causes... truly amazing... and well done "Sally Ann".

No further comment is necessary..."Think Twice" before you give to your charity of choice as to which one really does the best for the most - or the least for the most, for that matter.
 

[Collected via e-mail, November 2012]

The American Red Cross
President and CEO Marsha J. Evans' salary for the year was $651,957 plus expenses


MARCH OF DIMES
It is called the March of Dimes because only a dime for every 1 dollar is given to the needy.

The United Way
President Brian Gallagher receives a $375,000 base salary along with numerous expense benefits.
UNICEF
CEO Caryl M. Stern receives $1,200,000 per year (100k per month) plus all expenses including a ROLLS ROYCE.
Less than 5 cents of your donated dollar goes to the cause.

GOODWILL CEO and owner Mark Curran profits $2.3 million a year.
Goodwill is a very catchy name for his business.
You donate to his business and then he sells the items for PROFIT.
He pays nothing for his products and pays his workers minimum wage! Nice Guy.
$0.00 goes to help anyone! Stop giving to this man.


Instead, give it to ANY OF THE FOLLOWING

GO "GREEN" AND PUT YOUR MONEY WHERE IT WILL DO SOME GOOD:

The Salvation Army
Commissioner, Todd Bassett receives a small salary of only $13,000 per year (plus housing) for managing this $2 billion dollar organization.
96 percent of donated dollars go to the cause.

The American Legion
National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
Your donations go to help Veterans and their families and youth!


The Veterans of Foreign Wars
National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
Your donations go to help Veterans and their families and youth!

The Disabled American Veterans
National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
Your donations go to help Veterans and their families and youth!

The Military Order of Purple Hearts
National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
Your donations go to help Veterans and their families and youth!

The Vietnam Veterans Association
National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
Your donations go to help Veterans and their families and youth!

Make a Wish: For children's last wishes.
100% goes to funding trips or special wishes for a dying child.

St. Jude Research Hospital
100% goes towards funding and helping Children with Cancer who have no insurance and can not afford to pay.

Ronald McDonald Houses
All monies go to running the houses for parents who have critical Children in the hospital.
100% goes to housing, and feeding the families.

Lions Club International
100% OF DONATIONS GO TO HELP THE BLIND, BUY HEARING AIDES, SUPPORT MEDICAL MISSIONS AROUND THE WORLD. THEIR LATEST UNDERTAKING IS MEASLES VACCINATIONS (ONLY $1.00 PER SHOT).

Please share this with everyone you can.
 

Origins:   When deciding which charities to donate to, many people consider an important factor to be the "efficiency" of these organizations — that is, what percentage of the monies taken in by a given charity goes to funding its mission rather than being eaten up by costs such as fundraising activities, salaries, and other administrative overhead.

The e-mail reproduced above, which began circulating in 2005 and has been re-circulated every year since then around Christmastime, attempts to steer potential
donors away from inefficient charities. Unfortunately, much of the information it presents was inaccurate back in 2005, and it has grown only more so in the years since then, resulting in a misleading and outdated view of various charities. We attempt to present accurate and up-to-date information about the named charities below.

The following efficiency information is derived from the Charity Navigator web site, the GuideStar web site and Forbes magazine's November 2009 special report on the 200 Largest U.S. Charities. Salary information is taken from Schedule J (Compensation Information) of the various charities' IRS Form 990 filings, an annual reporting return that certain federally tax-exempt organizations must file with the IRS which provides information on the filing organization's mission, programs, and finances. (In the context of this article, the term "efficiency" refers to the percentage of total budget/expenses that each listed organization spends on providing charitable programs and services, while the term "compensation" or "pay" includes salary, one-time payments, and deferred compensation.)
  • UNICEF: The e-mail is not specific about which executive is being referred to here, as UNICEF (the United Nations Children's Fund) is a global organization with offices in 190 countries. We're assuming the reference is to the President and CEO of the United States Fund for UNICEF, Caryl M. Stern, whose last reported total yearly compensation was $472,891, not $1,200,000. Both Charity Navigator and Forbes rate this organization's efficiency at 91%, far greater than the 14% claimed in the e-mail cited above. In response to the claim that UNICEF's CEO receives "a Royal Royce for his exclusive use where ever he goes," UNICEF told us that "There is no Rolls Royce or company car provided for any staff member at UNICEF or the U.S. Fund, including the President and CEO of the U.S. Fund or UNICEF’s Executive Director.
  • American Red Cross: The information presented above is outdated (as of October 2010), as Marsha J. Evans resigned her position as CEO of the American Red Cross in 2005. The current President and CEO of the American Red Cross (since 2008) is Gail J. McGovern, whose total yearly compensation for 2010 was about $1,037,000 (considerably higher than the $651,957 figure mentioned above) and for 2011 was about $561,000. Charity Navigator and Forbes both rate this organization's efficiency at 92%, much higher than the 39% figure claimed in the e-mail.
  • United Way: The United Way is another charitable organization that operates on both global and local levels. We're assuming the e-mail references the President and CEO of United Way Worldwide, Brian A. Gallagher, whose last reported total yearly compensation was $717,076 (including a base salary of $415,613, which is a bit higher than the $375,000 figure reported above). Charity Navigator rates this organization's efficiency at 89%, while Forbes rates it at 85%, both much higher than the 51% efficiency claimed in the e-mail.
  • World Vision: World Vision is yet another charitable organization with global reach, but the message quoted above specifically references World Vision Canada. That organization provided us with the following information:
    Dave Toycen [President and CEO of World Vision Canada] salary is $184,000 which is a matter of public record. As per our Board's compensation policy, Dave and all of our top executives earn substantially less than executives who run comparable organizations. This policy is overseen by our Board's Executive Committee and is regularly assessed by an independent external consultant. We disclose executive compensation as required to the Canada Revenue Agency.

    Dave does not live in a $700,000-$800,000 home, and none of his housing costs are paid for by World Vision. He has lived in the same house outside of Toronto for more than 20 years. He travels economy class and does not use the most cutting edge technology.

    Accountability in the use of funds and transparency to our donors are among our core values and they are taken seriously at World Vision. As evidence of this:

    - The facts about our executive compensation, including the President's renumeration, are published openly on our website;

    - Our annual report and independently audited financial statements are also available for review.
    World Vision Canada's (self-reported) efficiency is 81%, much higher than the 52% figure claimed above. 
  • Salvation Army: The information presented above is outdated, as W. Todd Bassett stepped down as National Commander of The Salvation Army in April 2006; the current National Commander of the Salvation Army (since 2010) is William A. Roberts. The Salvation Army is not required to file a Form 990 with the IRS because it is primarily a religious organization, but according to the Better Business Bureau (BBB), Roberts' last reported total annual compensation was $126,920, much higher than the $13,000 reported above. Forbes rates this organization's efficiency at 82%, a fair bit lower than the 93% figure claimed in the e-mail.
  • Goodwill: Goodwill Industries International is not a business that takes in donated items and resells them for a profit. It is a not-for-profit organization that provides job training, employment placement services and other community-based programs for people who have disabilities, lack education or job experience, or face employment challenges. Goodwill raises money for their programs through a chain of thrift stores which also operate as non-profits. 

    The CEO of Goodwill Industries International is not Mark Curran, nor does he make $2.3 million a year. The current President and CEO of Goodwill is Jim Gibbons, who in 2011 received a total reported compensation of $725,000. 
  • March of Dimes: Charity Navigator rates the March of Dimes' efficiency at 64.6%, a fair bit lower than most of the charities mentioned here, but much higher than the 10% figure claimed in the e-mail example quoted above.
  • St. Jude Children's Research Hospital: Charity Navigator rates the efficiency of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital at 70.3%, considerably lower than the 100% figure claimed of it above.
  • Ronald McDonald Houses: Ronald McDonald House charities operate at local levels in dozens of different metropolitan areas in the U.S. with varying levels of efficiency. Charity Navigator rates the efficiency of the parent organization at 89.5%.
  • Lions Club International: Charity Navigator rates the efficiency of the Lions Clubs International Foundation at 83.9%.
A 2011 addendum to the original message presented the following information:
The American Legion National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
The Veterans of Foreign Wars National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
The Disabled American Veterans National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
The Military Order of Purple Hearts National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
The Vietnam Veterans Association National Commander receives a $0.00 zero salary.
These organizations with no salaries have donations going to help Veterans and their families and youth.

According to the most recent available Form 990 filings, all of these statements are false and/or misleading (in large part because the National Commanders are not necessarily the top business executives of these organizations):

  • The two men who served as National Commander of the American Legion during the 2009 tax year (David Rehbein and Clarence Hill) received total aggregate compensation of $103,701. The American Legion's National Adjutant (Daniel Wheeler), who is described as "the administrative head of the organization," received $201,661 in total compensation.
  • The two men who served as the Veterans of Foreign Wars' Commander-in-Chief during the 2009 tax year (Glen M. Gardner, Jr. and Thomas J. Tradewell, Sr.) received an aggregate total compensation of $329,868.
  • In the 2009 tax year, the National Adjutant of Disabled American Veterans (Arthur H. Wilson), who is described as "serving as the DAV's chief executive officer," received a total compensation of $328,252.
  • The Military Order of the Purple Heart (MOPH) is a separate entity from the Military Order of the Purple Heart Service Foundation (MOPHSF), although the former is largely dependent upon the latter to raise funds for its programs. For tax year 2009, the Executive Director of the MOPHSF (Gregory A. Bresser), who left that post in August 2009, received $142,986 in total compensation.
  • In tax year 2009, the President of Vietnam Veterans of America (the closest match to the "Vietnam Veterans Association" mentioned in the e-mail), John Rowan, received a total compensation of $69,874. (The highest paid executive was CFO/staff director Joseph Sternburg, who was paid $137,902.)
Unfortunately, the five veterans-related charitable organizations mentioned above don't receive very high marks for efficiency (as determined by Charity Navigator, the BBB, or Form 990 information):
  • American Legion: 55%
  • Veterans of Foreign Wars: 84%
  • Disabled American Veterans: 77%
  • Military Order of Purple Heart Service Foundation: 35%
  • Vietnam Veterans of America: 25%
Additional information:
America's Most Efficient Charities America's Most Efficient Charities
(Forbes)
Last updated:   13 November 2013

Urban Legends Reference Pages © 1995-2013 by Barbara and David P. Mikkelson. 
This material may not be reproduced without permission. 
snopes and the snopes.com logo are registered service marks of snopes.com.


Articles  American history scholar.google.com
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articles ebooks safari for tchebsco
Principles for achieving deep Processing.
Personal: How can I relate this concept to my personal experience?
Appropriate to Retrieval and application: how am I expected to use or apply this concept? (Questions at the End of the Chapters)
Automaticity: process of highly practiced that occurs without any conscious effort.
Over learning until you can recall it easily!
It is a good idea to over learning
AUTOMATICITY
OVER LEARNING.
Effective learning strategies good study strategies base in this principles. Make it s process on deep study strategies for achieving deep processing.
 Question generations as meaningful as possible!
Example:
What is met cognition.
Practice retrieving information without book and notes.
Use the information in the way the teacher is asking you!
Recalling the information
 TAKING NOTES IN CLASS
Provides key summary concepts. Take notes by hand!
Get miss information right away
 Consider recording the lectures!
Reprocess to learn the material.
Set a goal and agenda
Set criteria for participation
Keep ultimate goal of learning in mind
Everyone can ask/answer questions.
Any questions/ any member and express the group understanding.
 Effective learning strategies: good study strategies base in this principles. Make it process on deep study strategies for achieving deep processing.
Questions generation as meaningful as possible.
Taking notes in class provides a key summary
Concepts
Taking note by hand
Get miss information right away
Consider recording the lecture
DE process to learn the material
Principles for effective group study
Set a goal and agenda
Set criteria for participation
Keep ultimate goal of terming in mind
Everyone can ask/ answer question
Any questions/: any member can express the group understanding.
Do’s
Do examine how you prepared.
Be honest with yourself
Do review the exam
Comprehensive about studying
Compare study take note and ready be open to…
Do talk with your professor
Good study strategies do exam your study strategies.
Helpful strategies to raise your grades
Commit time and effort?
Minimize distractions
Attend classes
Set realistic goals
Do not begin to slide
Do the best you can to do well in all classes!
People are subordinated under an authority figure.
Bureaucracy Articles
Durkheim “egoistic Suicide”
Leidner “over the counter
What sociology is not focus on the 2003 rate of suicide 15-24

Child development is powerfully shaped by social  Capital.  The implication is clear: Social Capital keeps bad things from happening to good kids. The strong connection between social capital and child development is the remarkable convergence between the state by state social capital index 5,  that summarizes the measures that make up the Kids Count index of child welfare. Other factors can come between social capital and child well-being. The socioeconomic and demographic characteristics do matter. Poverty is an especially potent force in increasing youth fertility, mortality, and idleness, community engagement has precisely the opposite effect.  Social Capital is especially important in keeping children from being born unhealthily small and in keeping teenagers from dropping out of school hanging out on the streets, and having babies out of wedlock.
Similar conclusions have been reached by scholars study family life at the level of the neighborhood and even the individual family. Community psychologists have long noted that child abuse rates are higher where neighborhood cohesion is lower.
Social capital may be most crucial for families who have fewer financial and educational resources. Level of social trust  in a state and the frequency with which people connected informally with one another, were even more closely correlated with educational performance.
Communities with many  materials and cultural advantages do a poor job of education their kids, if the adults in these communities do not connect with one another. Sadly, the evidence of section II is that more and more American communities are like that. The correlation between community infrastructure,  and student and parental engagement in  schools is very substantial even after taking into account other economic, social, and educational factors like poverty, racial composition, family structure, educational spending, their kids watch less television  and  class size to name a few. Social  capital at the neighborhood or community level has an impact on child learning.  Social capital within families also powerfully affects youth development. at risk children can succeed  in life if their parents have enough social capital.
Social Capital works its magic by high levels of trust and citizen participation operated through a variety of mechanisms to produce socially desirable outcomes. Social capital allows citizens to resolve collective problems more easily.
When people are trusting and trustworthy, therefore, transactions are less costly vs. NO Social Capital, the lack to connect to others, they are unable to test the veracity of their own views, whether in given-and take of casual conversations.
Social Capital Does Gains, civic skills, social support, professional contact, volunteer labor, moving partners.
Social capita makes a big difference in our lives!
1.         Child welfare and education
2.         Health and productive neighborhood
3.         Economic prosperity
4.         Health and happiness
5.         Democratic citizenship
6.         Government performance
ü  Social Capital makes us:            
ü  Smarter         
ü  Healthier  
ü  Safer
ü  Richer and better!!!

Durkheim noticed that suicide rate was particular high in one segment of the 19th century French society.

Altruistic Suicide:

A result of too much integration of the individual to the group. The individual loses sight of his individuality and becomes willing to sacrifice themselves to collective interests.

 

i.e. Traditional Indian Society.

Suicide Bomber, Indonesia

 

Michael Murphy (29)

Navy DEAL to Receive the Medal of Honor

Too little freedom  very altruistic

 society  the ideal  (in the middle)   MODERNIZATION

Les Freedom Modernization More Freedom

traditional society: tightly integrated by common values and beliefs

To much society state of society  very egoistic society

Modern society: diversification of values

Durkheim

Modernization = general course of “evolution” of society

Traditional society: “Mechanical” Society

Modern Society = “Organic” Society.

Mechanical society: more simple society

Common heritage, faith, and occupation. Very limited diversity.

The similarity among people strongly glues them together.

“Mechanical solidarity”

Durkheim’s typology of society

Organic (modern) society

Complex society

Diverse beliefs and values. (no similarities here)

Division of labor occurs. Members have different functions in society that complement one another.

Society depends on diversity

Organic solidarity

The Amish church

The Amish Live In Communities along Side

God Is The Most Important,  Then Parents, At 16 Life Changes,

Sleep Around, Theater, Etc.

16-21 DESIDE and join AMISH CHURCH

To Be Or Not To Be.

To Give More Time to God

More Cloths and Jewry Is Vanity

Have Many Children

Keep Busier Is Better To Keep Out Of Trouble. Every Body Life Should Be For Crist.

After 16, a person can do anything they want to. Start going to parties.

Movie Devil’s playground”

Write a reflection paper.

Compare Amish and mainstream American society. Find here things about the Amish society that shows its mechanical nature.

 

traditional society: tightly integrated by common values and beliefs

To much society state of society  very egoistic society

Modern society: diversification of values.
Amish:

 

Diversity of values collective values working together. Rules of life style. Cloths, seclusion from society, woman weak and men are bread provider.

Tradition is important

You do not change or question the tradition values   God is the more important. Language.

 

American has a strong value  family values democracy , freedom. 

 

Level of Anomie: The goal for Amish  is following  the tradital rules and all are provide for you.

 

Mainstrem society: family values

 

Quote people from the move.

“God Is The Most Important”

“Then Parents”

“At 16 Life Changes”

 

Is the idea of Rumspringa mechanical or organic? Explain why.

Traditional society: “Mechanical” Society.

Mechanical society: more simple society

Common heritage, faith, and occupation. Very limited diversity.

The similarity among people strongly glues them together.

You are expected to do a ritual. Everybody is expected to do.

 

Rumspringa greatly helps Amish community’s long-term survival. How?

Experience the world,

The traditions are important to be out, the choices are there, and the experience will change. It prevent children the Altruistic Suicide: Without any skills the egoistic  Amish kids before 16. Kids know there is all the staff outer.  Amish kids during Rumspringa Sudden break from ties throws them into highly egoistic state. The majority do go back to the community after they come back.

A suicide.

Suicide (3)

 

Anomic Suicide:

Suicide that results from anomie: Anomie the state of imbalance between aspirations and means to achieve them.

What did you want to become, as a child?

Society feeds us with aspirations and reams

Why did you give up on that dream?

A stable society has a cooling off  device that keeps people’s aspirations within available means (ex. School)

Anomie happens when the cool-off device goes broken.

In which period is anomie more common?

Toward the end of a prolonged economic recession (now)

 

At the beginning of the dot com boom (around 2000)

Your reality may be bad! Your expectation may be low. The mean are suppressed and expectations are low. There is an expectation is high, but the means are low. When there is no gap no suicide.

EMILE DURKLEIM 3 typologies of suicide

 

EGOISTIC: NO            DO Collective values and Norms exist?

Can people sick to values and norms?

 

ALTRUISTIC: YES     DO Collective values and Norms exist?

Can people sick to values and norms?

 

ANOMIC: YES   DO Collective values and Norms exist?

Can people sick to values and norms?

 

Hint: which group has firm, common values to believe in?

Which group is more disconnected and had less security?

 

 Double-Spaced. Suicide statistics findings

Africa America women have the loses rate (1.8) %

White men have the heist, %  (32.1)%

Men are more suicidal

Youth help if you are shite, but not  for minorities

Whites have the higer suicide  rate component t minorities

Youth black ale have  also hig rate of suciade

Age after  male more.

 

 

Social Groups

Groups of people according to their common ATTRIBUTIONS. Members of the group share similar experiences, degree of power, and status in society.

 

Examples:  what else counts as a social group?

Race

Gender

Ethnicity

EMILE DURKLEIM: SUICIDE IS NOT “INDIVIDUAL CASES OF DEATH, BUT DOMINATLY SOCIAL”

Egoistic Suicide

Suicide caused by too much individual freedom. Happens when the individual is disconnected from collective values and beliefs, and deprived of connections to larger community

NOTES:

What is social capital?

Is a simple different name for social network.

Social CAPITAL: Smae thinking  assets that yield more values

Uneveny distributed (implies for

 

BONDING SOICAL CAPITAL:

BASED ON AND RENFORECES COMMON AND EXCLUSIVE INDENTIEIES ( INWARD-LOOKING TIES)

OFFERS STRONG PERSONAL, AND EMOTIONAL TIES “SOCIALOGICAL SUPERGLUES

 

 
Dark sides of modernization.
Mechanical vs. organic (modern)
Fast jobs  1, 3 and lower pay.  >6 polarization of work  7 > structure   7 structure 70%
1 system analyst.
 Fastest growing  jobs are either at the tip of the job hierarchy or at bottom in earning potential, security and prestige since 1977 (less factories)
5 CRAFTSMANSHIP (VIOLIN)
Pre-modern labor manual (hand made) Artesian
PHYSICAL LABOR
Repetition process
Pre-guided one person to finish the product needs creativity, skills, experience.
Place of work: quiet, smoothing, intimate connection.
Assembly workers, x box factory
MODERN ASSEMBLY LINE
Machine process assembly repetition/ consumer product pre-guided.
Labor power to produce commodity production in many steps and more people for production very manufacturing minimal skills. Very mechanical environmental noisy, unpleasant, inhuman. No independence. MICROMANAGEMENT. 
Sociologist predicted back many years ago. German Sociologist
Deskilling theory:
Jobs in modern society increasingly became no brains tasks.
Minimum individual thinking
Work does not give you SELF-ESTEEM OR SATISFACTION.
MODERN SOCIETY = Max Weber

Iron cage:
Efficiency/predictability/calculability/control.
Our entire society is increasingly organized like the McDonalds.
PREDICTABILITY:
EFFICIENCY:
What is the most general definition of efficiency?
Anyone can follow to produce the most in the shortest, the most in the shortest amount of time.
Find the best or optima means to any given end. Consistent product every time.
Uniform system through the world.
Limit menu
Standardized trading and marketing.
What is the McDonald Definition of efficiency?
Efficiency is system that pressures the max profit in shortest amount of time cost.  Action and goal. Explicate Rationalized.
Achieving efficiency
Reutilization of work: Work is broken down to “idiot-proof” small tasks.
Stream ling selling getting dinners in and out as quickly as possible.
Three ways in which the McDonalds achieve efficiency
Two aspects:  Decoupling theory (what is McDonalized  School good for?) The official story of schooling the “nominal” function, “school teachers skills and knowledge”
De-coupling theory of schooling what are we learning at school then?
How to endure a predictable school day.
To grow patience with activities you have no genuine interest in and most of all, learn to accept authority.
McDonalized  school teaches  us to be a docile worker by teaching the norm of  norm of behavior.
How does school system achieve efficiency?
Standardized testing.
Emphasis in quantity vs. quality.
Less one and one contact between students and teachers.
Online  education to reduce const and  increase market.
Students to teacher ratio inadequate teachers evaluation  system.
Quality of education decreasing b/d online classes.
predictability
what are predictable for employees
Employs: instructions for steps manuals. Every steps or instructions for employees are describe in a manual.
Customers: they have the same menu, the simple the faster no choices.
Calculability:
What is the definition of calculability
Quantity rather the quality
Emphasis in the profits produced instead of benefit  and durability of product.
Products and services can be defined in numbers.
MY REDBOOK.COM other places where you see calculability.
The product, and processes of business are controlled in numbers.
Make the product control
Examples: where do you see control in Disneyland?
Price, Food, Vip’s (no lines for very important people in the games etc)/ Limit employees tasks Control environment, micromanagement.
How is: Disneyland different form     NORTH KOREA?     
Disneyland
        NORTH KOREA
Open access
Dictated
entertainment
Government drive
Freedom of expression
No freedom of expression
Family oriented people
State priority
Happy
Depressing
GLOBALIZATION: PREDICTABILITY IN McDONALIZATION TRANSFORMING THE WORLD INTO THE AMERICAN MALL
McDonalds’
Not globalization but g localization
“Institutional myth”
“school is the only legitimate place to educate children, as long as it is run by certified teachers, by formal curriculum”
We blindly trust institutionalized way of doing things, regardless of effectiveness.
Governments
Authority
Medicine
Politics
Therapists etc. etc.
Myths covers up the de-coupled reality “nominal” function # “latent” function. BECAUSE INSTITUTIONAL MYTHS!!!!


CONTROL: Two elements  that enables control

Efficient = predictability and calculability.

Control political side effects of efficiency predictability calculability!

Control = Two elements that enable control, calculability makes finer control of workers and customer possible. Predictability: routine prevents deviation from set rules from happening. What is unique about McDonalds control (compared to a despot’s control?

Control is not coming from a visible, personal authority, but embedded in the routine.

Institution make us  willingly submit to control.

Rationalization

German: Weberian term for Mcdonalization rationalization pursuit to efficiency by minimizing of the options in operates, by increasing predictability and calculability.
Bureaucracy
Pros:                                                                       vs                                                        CONS:
Obviously efficient,
vs
DEHUMANIZING
More stable as an organization
vs
DISENCHANT
Structures our life.
vs
KILLS OUR FREEDOM (IRON CAGE)

AT THE END =

Irrationality of rationality in the excessive pursuit to efficiency bureaucracy ultimately becomes quite inefficient.

BUREAUCRACY: has divisions of labor it is society where individuals specialize in Different roles for entire society to increase performance. (Organic or mechanical).

BUREAUCRACY IS BASED ON ORGANIC SOLIDARITY. Where difference values amongst people compliments each other. It happens only in modern society.

Durkheim: ORGANIC society

Example: in Russia universal characteristics of rationalized organization

Division of labor specialize positions

Hierarchy clear chain of command.

Written formal rules everybody follows

Impersonal: does not matter who is in position

THREE PLACES THAT ARE NOT BUREAUCRATIC:

SCHOOL            GOVERNMENT
COMPANIES

VS.
VS.
VS.
FAMILIES VS. ARTISTES ARTISTES  COLONY GUILD
NEW LEFT IN NO’S
THREE TYPOLOGIES OF AUTHORITY OF WEBER
Compare the three figures of authorities:  Why do the followers of his con temporal follow his leadership?

Compare the three figures of authorities:  Why do the followers of his co temporal follow his leadership?
Compare the three figures of authorities:  Why do the followers of his co temporal follow his leadership?
A.    The Chief,  Queen Of England, Parent, Dalai Lama, Pope, Cesar Chavez

Because: traditional, legitimacy derives from beliefs in tradition, mystical powers lies in the blood, mechanical, stable, impersonal, traditional.
B.    The Prophet, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, Buddha, Fidel Castro, Gandy, Hitler.
BECAUSE: We elected legal rational, impersonal stable, organic.
Because: they are charismatic, philosophy, style, vision, unstable, personal or both.
THE CHIEF:
THE PRESIDENT, government, CEO, prime minister
THE PROPHET
Authority type: president, legal rational elected, impersonal, stable, organic.
All CEO’s, Government prime ministers, teachers.

BECAUSE: We elected legal rational, impersonal stable, organic.
COMPARE DURKHEIM AND WEBER ON THEIR IDEAS OF MODERNIZATION
DURKHEIM = ON HIS IDEAS OF
 MODERNIZATION =ORGANIC, SOLDIERLY
 (From mechanic to soldiery)
THE DIFFERENCE FROM WEBER IS COURSE OF NATURAL EVOLUTION, FOR MORE LIBERATION FROM MECHANICAL SOCIETY.
SUICIDE:
ANOMIC, EGOISTIC ALTRUISTIC (AMISH)
COMPARE WEBER: contemporal limit to predictability, GLOBALIZATION variation of globalization
Weber Rationalization: efficiency, de-coupling theory, predictability, calculability, control.
Institutional myth is Bureaucracy
.
Rational l legal, traditional, charismatic. Irrational of rational.
THE DIFFERENCE FORM Durkheim
WEBER PROCESS OF ANNIHILATION OF FREEDOM.
FOR WEBER:
BUREAUCRACY DIVISION OF LABOR IS ONE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS. In bureaucratic organization to increase efficiency  in modern day organization.
Mechanical solidarity: people believe in the same values and the communality among people bring them together.
 Autocracy everyone follows the same rules.
Both agree (similarities)
Modernization: increase efficiency, efficiency

WEBER: RATIONALIZATION
Efficiency
Predictability
Calculability
Control
These four items are Bureaucracy because of the Bureaucracy exist, the institutionalized myth exits! So Bureaucracy is decoupling theory and Bureaucracy is leading to irrationality of rationality (are side) Weber charismatic, traditional, rational legal traditional =mechanical.


  

A voice inside of you whispers all day long “I that this is right for me. I know that this is wrong.” No teacher, preacher, parent, friend, or wise man can decide what is right for you – Just listen to a voice that speaks inside.   By  Shel Silversten
People are subordinated under an authority figure.
Bureaucracy Articles
Durkheim “egoistic Suicide”
Leidner “over the counter
Summary: typologies of suicide by Durkheim.

Egoistic society
= Society is too weak. Shared values and norms are not existent.

Altruistic society
= Society is too strong. Individuals are submerged in collective.

Anomic society
= Society provides values but not means to adhere to them. Individuals cannot achieve connection to society due to the lack of means.
What sociology is not focus on the 2003 rate of suicide 15-24
America Sociology vs. psychology.
What sociology is not focus on the 2003?
 Rate of suicide 15-24 out of 100,000 people.
Nation: five  interesting things:
White men  22,830 = 19.5%   4,997 = 15.8%
BLACK WOMAN  358 =1.8%  26 = 1.4%
NATION 31,484 = 10.8 %     5,248 = 14.6%
MEN                       25,203 = 17.6% 4,453 = 29.8%
White and male highs suicidal if old. Black woman Lowest Suicidal 10 x less than white man.
African American woman have the lowest rate (1. 8% suicidal.
White men have the highest percentage.
Men are more 32.1% suicidal.
Youth helps if you are white for minorities.
Whites have the higher suicide component to minorities.
Young black male.
Dark sides of modernization.
Mechanical vs. organic (modern)
Fast jobs  1, 3 and lower pay.
 6 polarization of work 
7 > structure   7 structure 70%
1 system analyst.
 Fastest growing  jobs are either at the tip of the job hierarchy or at bottom in earning potential, security and prestige since 1977 (less factories)
5 CRAFTSMANSHIP (VIOLIN)
Pre-modern labor manual (hand made) Artesian
PHYSICAL LABOR
Repetition process
Pre-guided one person to finish the product needs creativity, skills, experience. Place of work: quiet, smoothing, intimate connection.  Vs. Assembly workers, x box factory
MODERN ASSEMBLY LINE
Machine process assembly repetition/ consumer product pre-guided.
Labor power to produce commodity production in many steps and more people for production very manufacturing minimal skills. Very mechanical environmental noisy, unpleasant, inhuman. No independence. MICROMANAGEMENT. 
Sociologist predicted back many years ago. German Sociologist
Deskilling theory:
Jobs in modern society increasingly became no brains tasks.
Minimum individual thinking
Work does not give you SELF-ESTEEM OR SATISFACTION.
MODERN SOCIETY = Max Weber
Iron cage:
Efficiency/predictability/calculability/control.
Our entire society is increasingly organized like the McDonalds.
PREDICTABILITY:
EFFICIENCY:
What is the most general definition of efficiency?
Anyone can follow to produce the most in the shortest, the most in the shortest amount of time.
Find the best or optima means to any given end. Consistent product every time.
Uniform system through the world.
Limit menu
Standardized trading and marketing.
What is the McDonald Definition of efficiency?
Efficiency is system that pressures the max profit in shortest amount of time cost.  Action and goal. Explicate Rationalized.
Achieving efficiency
Reutilization of work: Work is broken down to “idiot-proof” small tasks.
Stream ling selling getting dinners in and out as quickly as possible.
Three ways in which the McDonalds achieve efficiency
Two aspects:  Decoupling theory (what is McDonalized  School good for?) The official story of schooling the “nominal” function, “school teachers skills and knowledge”
De-coupling theory of schooling what are we learning at school then?
How to endure a predictable school day.
To grow patience with activities you have no genuine interest in and most of all, learn to accept authority.
McDonalized  school teaches  us to be a docile worker by teaching the norm of  norm of behavior.
How does school system achieve efficiency?
Standardized testing.
Emphasis in quantity vs. quality.
Less one and one contact between students and teachers.
Online  education to reduce const and  increase market.
Students to teacher ratio inadequate teachers evaluation  system.
Quality of education decreasing b/d online classes.
predictability
what are predictable for employees
Employs: instructions for steps manuals. Every steps or instructions for employees are describe in a manual.
Customers: they have the same menu, the simple the faster no choices.
Calculability:
What is the definition of calculability
Quantity rather the quality
Emphasis in the profits produced instead of benefit  and durability of product.
Products and services can be defined in numbers.
MY REDBOOK.COM other places where you see calculability.
The product, and processes of business are controlled in numbers.
Make the product control
Examples: where do you see control in Disneyland?
Price, Food, VIP’s (no lines for very important people in the games etc)/ Limit employees tasks Control environment, micromanagement.
How is: Disneyland different form     NORTH KOREA?     
Disneyland
        NORTH KOREA
Open access
Dictated
entertainment
Government drive
Freedom of expression
No freedom of expression
Family oriented people
State priority
Happy
Depressing
GLOBALIZATION: PREDICTABILITY IN McDONALIZATION TRANSFORMING THE WORLD INTO THE AMERICAN MALL
McDonalds’
Not globalization but g localization
“Institutional myth”
“school is the only legitimate place to educate children, as long as it is run by certified teachers, by formal curriculum”
We blindly trust institutionalized way of doing things, regardless of effectiveness.
Governments
Authority
Medicine
Politics
Therapists etc. etc.
Myths covers up the de-coupled reality “nominal” function # “latent” function. BECAUSE INSTITUTIONAL MYTHS!!!!

CONTROL: Two elements  that enables control
Efficient = predictability and calculability.
Control political side effects of efficiency predictability calculability!
Control = Two elements that enable control, calculability makes finer control of workers and customer possible. Predictability: routine prevents deviation from set rules from happening. What is unique about McDonalds control (compared to a despot’s control?
Control is not coming from a visible, personal authority, but embedded in the routine.
Institution make us  willingly submit to control.
Rationalization
German: Weberian term for Mcdonalization rationalization pursuit to efficiency by minimizing of the options in operates, by increasing predictability and calculability.
Bureaucracy
Pros:                                                                                                                       CONS:
Obviously efficient,
vs
DEHUMANIZING
More stable as an organization
vs
DISENCHANT
Structures our life.
vs
KILLS OUR FREEDOM (IRON CAGE)
AT THE END = Irrationality of rationality in the excessive pursuit to efficiency bureaucracy ultimately becomes quite inefficient.
BUREAUCRACY: has divisions of labor it is society where individuals specialize in Different roles for entire society to increase performance. (Organic or mechanical).
BUREAUCRACY IS BASED ON ORGANIC SOLIDARITY. Where difference values amongst people compliments each other. It happens only in modern society.
Durkheim: ORGANIC society
Example: in Russia universal characteristics of rationalized organization
Division of labor specialize positions
Hierarchy clear chain of command.
Written formal rules everybody follows
Impersonal: does not matter who is in position
THREE PLACES THAT ARE NOT BUREAUCRATIC:
BECAUSE: We elected legal rational, impersonal stable, organic.
COMPARE DURKHEIM AND WEBER ON THEIR IDEAS OF MODERNIZATION
DURKHEIM = ON HIS IDEAS OF
 MODERNIZATION =ORGANIC, SOLDIERLY
 (From mechanic to soldiery)
THE DIFFERENCE FROM WEBER IS COURSE OF NATURAL EVOLUTION, FOR MORE LIBERATION FROM MECHANICAL SOCIETY.
SUICIDE:
ANOMIC, EGOISTIC ALTRUISTIC (AMISH)
COMPARE WEBER: contemporal limit to predictability, GLOBALIZATION variation of globalization
Weber Rationalization: efficiency, de-coupling theory, predictability, calculability, control.
Institutional myth is Bureaucracy
.
Rational l legal, traditional, charismatic. Irrational of rational.
THE DIFFERENCE FORM Durkheim
WEBER PROCESS OF ANNIHILATION OF FREEDOM.
FOR WEBER:
BUREAUCRACY DIVISION OF LABOR IS ONE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS. In bureaucratic organization to increase efficiency  in modern day organization.
Mechanical solidarity: people believe in the same values and the communality among people bring them together.
 Autocracy everyone follows the same rules.
Both agree (similarities)
Modernization: increase efficiency, efficiency

WEBER: RATIONALIZATION
Efficiency
Predictability
Calculability
Control
These four items are Bureaucracy because of the Bureaucracy exist, the institutionalized myth exits! So Bureaucracy is decoupling theory and Bureaucracy is leading to irrationality of rationality (are side) Weber charismatic, traditional, rational legal traditional =mechanical.
High 
Low
Integration
1. Altruistic suicide
3. Egoistic suicide
Regulation
2. Fatalistic suicide
4. Anomic suicide
Egoistic society
= Society is too weak. Shared values and norms are not existent.

Altruistic society
= Society is too strong. Individuals are submerged in collective.

Anomic society
= Society provides values but not means to adhere to them. Individuals cannot achieve connection to society due to the lack of means
                                                                                                                            


EMILE DURKLEIM: SUICIDE IS NOT “INDIVIDUAL CASES OF DEATH, BUT DOMINATLY SOCIAL”
Use the idea of egoistic suicide and answer
Why do elderly white men have consistently higher rates of suicide compared to anyone else?
Does not know what to do with his life after retirement
No power, control, or independence

Why do educated people have higher suicide rates that those with less education?
Less time with family
Lack of morality.
Lack of values

Why do black women have the lowest suicide rate among all?
The rate for black woman rate is 1.8%. May be religion depending do have the highest unemployed rate, and high incarceration.  In general historically socially oppress so therefore less likely.

In which situation is egoistic suicide rate higher?
Jews in the holocaust vs. Jews after their release from concentration camp

American during World War II vs.  Americans right after the war over

Suicide (2)

Durkheim noticed that suicide rate was particular high in one segment of the 19th century French society.
Altruistic Suicide:
A result of too much integration of the individual to the group. The individual loses sight of his individuality and becomes willing to sacrifice themselves to collective interests.

i.e. Traditional Indian Society.
Suicide Bomber, Indonesia

Michael Murphy (29)
Navy DEAL to Receive the Medal of Honor
Too little freedom  very altruistic
 society  the ideal  (in the middle)   MODERNIZATION
Les Freedom Modernization More Freedom
traditional society: tightly integrated by common values and beliefs
To much society state of society  very egoistic society
Modern society: diversification of values
Durkheim
Modernization = general course of “evolution” of society
Traditional society: “Mechanical” Society
Modern Society = “Organic” Society.
Mechanical society: more simple society
Common heritage, faith, and occupation. Very limited diversity.
The similarity among people strongly glues them together.
“Mechanical solidarity”
Durkheim’s typology of society
Organic (modern) society
Complex society
Diverse beliefs and values. (no similarities here)
Division of labor occurs. Members have different functions in society that complement one another.
Society depends on diversity
Organic solidarity
The Amish church
The Amish Live In Communities along Side
God Is The Most Important,  Then Parents, At 16 Life Changes,
Sleep Around, Theater, Etc.
16-21 DESIDE and join AMISH CHURCH
To Be Or Not To Be.
To Give More Time to God
More Cloths and Jewry Is Vanity
Have Many Children
Keep Busier Is Better To Keep Out Of Trouble. Every Body Life Should Be For Crist.
After 16, a person can do anything they want to. Start going to parties.
Movie Devil’s playground”
Write a reflection paper.
Compare Amish and mainstream American society. Find here things about the Amish society that shows its mechanical nature.

traditional society: tightly integrated by common values and beliefs
To much society state of society  very egoistic society
Modern society: diversification of values.
Amish:

Diversity of values collective values working together. Rules of life style. Cloths, seclusion from society, woman weak and men are bread provider.
Tradition is important
You do not change or question the tradition values   God is the more important. Language.

American has a strong value  family values democracy , freedom. 

Level of Anomie: The goal for Amish  is following  the tradital rules and all are provide for you.

Mainstrem society: family values
A suicide.
Suicide (3)

Anomic Suicide:
Suicide that results from anomie: Anomie the state of imbalance between aspirations and means to achieve them.
What did you want to become, as a child?
Society feeds us with aspirations and reams
Why did you give up on that dream?
A stable society has a cooling off  device that keeps people’s aspirations within available means (ex. School)
Anomie happens when the cool-off device goes broken.
In which period is anomie more common?
Toward the end of a prolonged economic recession (now)

At the beginning of the dot com boom (around 2000)
Your reality may be bad! Your expectation may be low. The mean are suppressed and expectations are low. There is an expectation is high, but the means are low. When there is no gap no suicide.
EMILE DURKLEIM 3 typologies of suicide

EGOISTIC: NO            DO Collective values and Norms exist?
Can people sick to values and norms?

ALTRUISTIC: YES     DO Collective values and Norms exist?
Can people sick to values and norms?

ANOMIC: YES   DO Collective values and Norms exist?
Can people sick to values and norms?

The Terminology Means



(API)=   Academic Performance Index (API)



(STAR) =  California's public school students take part annually in statewide testing known as the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR)  program.



(API) =  Schools are assigned an Academic Performance Index (API)

based on results from STAR testing.



(NCLB) = Under the federal law known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), from 2003 forward the API is also used to evaluate schools for Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).


(AYP) = API is also used to evaluate schools for Adequate Yearly Progress

The Terminology Means

(API)=   Academic Performance Index (API)

(STAR) =  California's public school students take part annually in statewide testing known as the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR)  program.

(API) =  Schools are assigned an Academic Performance Index (API)
 based on results from STAR testing.

(NCLB) = Under the federal law known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), from 2003 forward the API is also used to evaluate schools for Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).

(AYP) = API is also used to evaluate schools for Adequate Yearly Progress

Assignment due: HS statistics. Instruction is here. This should take no more than 30minutes. 
http://www.ed-data.k12.ca.us/Pages/Home.aspx
The voice
A voice inside of you whispers all day long “I that this is right for me. I know that this is wrong.” No teacher, preacher, parent, friend, or wise man can decide what is right for you – Just listen to a voice that speaks inside.   By  Shel Silversten.


If citizen do not get the good flow of information. The get keepers need to make sure they are transparence
Websites
.com commercial or personal websites
.org nonprofit organization
.edu Education websites. Be aware of the author.
.gov for medical information\government websites.
Craap test
Currency: the timelines of the information when was the information update.
Relevance: does the information relate to your topic
Authority: who is the author/publish/source/sponsor?

Accuracy: where does the information come from? Reliability, truthfulness, and correctness
Purpose: the reason the information exists
What is the purpose of the information? Teach, sell, entertain, or
Education site:.edu
Currency: The timeliness of the information.
When was the information published or posted?


Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs.
Who is the intended audience?
Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your needs)?
Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?


Authority: The source of the information.
Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations and is the author qualified to write on the topic?
Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? examples: .com .edu .gov .org .net


Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness and correctness of the content.
Is the information supported by evidence?
Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?


Purpose: The reason the information exists.
What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade?
Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?
KEYWORDS:
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/search/basic?sid=338e3916-037b-47f6-ae0d-682e24eeb937%40sessionmgr198&vid=1&hid=128


You will be evaluating two websites on the same subject, one of them will be appropriate for a research paper, the other will not be.

Evaluate that website based on the following criteria:

Currency: The timeliness of the information.
When was the information published or posted?


Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs.
Who is the intended audience?
Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your needs)?
Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?


Authority: The source of the information.
Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations and is the author qualified to write on the topic?
Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? examples: .com .edu .gov .org .net


Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness and correctness of the content.
Is the information supported by evidence?
Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?


Purpose: The reason the information exists.
What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade?
Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?


Choose a pair of websites from the following list:
American Women's History:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/awhhtml/index.html
http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0907019.html

Octopuses
http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/kids/animals/creaturefeature/octopuses/
http://marine.alaskapacific.edu/octopus/

Baby Sign Language
https://www.babysigns.com/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1868823/

Endangered Species
http://endangeredspecie.com/
http://www.fws.gov/endangered/

Bad Breath
http://www.helium.com/items/1417492-bad-breath-causes-and-prevention
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bad-breath/ds00025/dsection=causes

Cell Phone Dangers
http://www.psrast.org/mobileng/mobilstarteng.htm
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cellphones

Causes of Separation Anxiety in Dogs
http://www.helium.com/items/1738966-causes-of-separation-anxiety-in-dogs
http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/dogs/tips/separation_anxiety.html

Symptoms of ADHD
http://add.about.com/u/ua/signsandsymptoms/ADHD-Symptoms-in-Children.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/NCBDDD/adhd/facts.html

Fingerprinting
http://stephan.grandpre.net/fingerprinting.html
http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/fingerprints_biometrics

Heart Disease
http://www.hearttechnology.com/
http://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/prevention.htm

Samurai Swords
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/samurai/swor-nf.html
http://www.trueswords.com/art_of_katana.php

Psychic Powers
http://www.healing-crystals-for-you.com/psychic-powers.html
http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0033423

Ancient Egypt
http://egypt.mrdonn.org/
http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/menu.html#

Who built the pyramids?
http://www.outerworlds.com/likeness/aliens/aliens.html
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/who-built-the-pyramids.html
  
Segregation a Cause of High School Dropout For Latinos
 Policies and Practices that promote integration  are controversial in ethnicity groups. Latinos, whites, and blacks still tend to live in different neighborhoods and attend different schools. Latinos, will be the largest ethnic minority group  in the United States in the 21st century. The largest minority group, yet not represented in education, in contrast with the overwhelming  representation in the legal system. The state of imbalance between aspirations and means to achieve them.
Dreams of a child that wanted to be something important. Individuals cannot achieve connection to society due to the lack of means, with no support of the community just what the society feeds us with aspirations and reams. The expectation is high, but the means are low.  About 60 percent of Latinos high school dropouts are employed at age 19. (Bureau of labor Statistics 2007). A  about 11 percent of Latinos make high school dropouts experience imprisonment by age 34 compare. This reflects and reinforces entrenched social and economic divisions in American society. The  institutional and social structure affect educational achievements among different social groups, including the Latinos. The implication is clear, social capital keeps bad things from happening to good kids. Child development is powerfully shaped by social Capital The strong connection between social capital and child development. Other factors can come between social capital and child well-being. The socioeconomic and demographic characteristics do matter. Poverty is an especially potent force  for high school students to want to drop out of school. Social Capital is especially important in keeping children from being born unhealthily small and in keeping teenagers at school and educated them orient them to full fill their dreams.
High School Statistics Attrition Among Hispanic And Non-Hispanic Whites Youths. It examines the effects of a number of factors on the dropout behavior of high school students. For example in Aragon High School, 2010-11. The high school  have  (*) meaning no percent of teachers who are fully credentialed. Latino  students are 385 equals to 24.3 percent.  Teachers Percent by Race/Ethnicity 2.7. Percent of English language learners and their mother languages, (ELs) 82 equals to 5.2 percent. The educational struggle of the Latinos  in Aragon High school is still a challenge base on this statistic from all these indexes like:  (API)  Academic Performance Index.  California's public school students take part annually in statewide testing known as the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR)  Under the federal law known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), from 2003 forward the API is also used to evaluate schools for Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). Academic Performance Index (API) is also used to evaluate schools for Adequate Yearly Progress explain the reasons for their struggle. Latinos are not represented and social structure affect educational achievements among different social groups
         when I went to high school, there was not resources for Latino students like me.  Communities with many  materials and cultural advantages do a poor job of education their kids, if the adults in these communities do not connect with one another. The correlation between community infrastructure,  and student and parental engagement in  schools is very substantial even after taking into account other economic, social, and educational factors like poverty, racial composition, family structure. Social  capital at the neighborhood or community level has an impact on child learning.  Social capital within families also powerfully affects youth development. at risk children can succeed  in life if their parents have enough social capital. Social Capital works its magic by high levels of trust and citizen participation operated through a variety of mechanisms to produce socially desirable outcomes. Social capital allows citizens to resolve collective problems more easily.
Cutting classes, suspensions, dating, being older, being female. Having  disciplinary problems at school. High socioeconomic status, and having two parents at home substantially deceased the dropping of students. From the major racial/ethnic, Hispanics  or Latinos have the highest dropout rates.  IN 1983 only 50.3 % graduate.  Hispanic or Latino   82 equals to  6.1 percent and  2010-2011. This affects educational outcome.

It examines the effects of a number of factors on the dropout behavior of high school students. Cutting classes, suspensions, dating, being older, being female. Having  disciplinary problems at school. High socioeconomic status, and having two parents at home substantially deceased the dropping of students. From the major racial/ethnic, Hispanics have the highest dropout rates, in 1983 only 50.3 % graduate
that affects one’s educational outcome, and  institutional and social structure affect educational achievements among different social groups. The early arrest still increases early school dropout in models with many relevant groups that are very well represented like the Latinos in the legal system. The arrested weakens  subsequent participation in schools, decreasing their capacity to educate and being an example for the youths. It states that, students in predominantly black and Latino, schools  are less likely to earn a high school diploma or equivalent and to earn a bachelor’s degree than similar students in predominantly white schools.


Jstor: sociology of Education, Vol. 82, No. 4 (Octo., 2009), pp 368-393
http://www.ed-data.k12.ca.us/Pages/Home.aspx
William Valez, Univertiy of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
 http://www.ed-data.k12.ca.us/Pages/Home.aspx
California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Office (Language Census, elsch11 2/28/12)
William Valez, Univertiy of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.


California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Office (Language Census, elsch11 2/28/12)

 

FAIR TRADE PRICING?

žTYPE OF LABOR USED:
žChildren as young as five years to 17 yrs. Old
ž90% of cocoa farms in West Africa (Primarily Ivory Coast use child labor
žOnly 15% children receiving any wage at all
žWorking conditions:
žSunrise to Sunset
žThey use dangerous Machetes to cut the cocoa pods of the cocoa trees
žGiven Corn Mash (the cheapest of foods)
žLock inside a small shed at night with 25 other children only with a small hole for air.
žBeaten if they are deemed slow with bicycle chain
ž
žFAIR TRADE PRICING?
ž
žFAIR TRADE PRICING?
    Middlemen: advocacy is done on the farmer's behalf by the businesses and organizations agree to pay an above market price for the products. The extra money make lasting improvements in their communities, by going towards schools, hospitals.
žFAIR TRADE PRICING
Creating better wage conditions
žFAIR TRADE PRICING
   Sourcing: Fair trade organizations  try to help the farmer/ producer by increasing their knowledge and teaching skills
žFAIR TRADE PRICING
  In order for fair pricing to work, therehas to be international regulations and standards by which farms will comply, to become  Slave-Free Chocolatež

žAdditional services and information for Youth & Society can be found at:
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What is This?
>> Version of Record - Sep 1, 1991
Downloaded from
“Institutional myth”
“school is the only legitimate place to educate children, as long as it is run by certified teachers, by formal curriculum”
We blindly trust institutionalized way of doing things, regardless of effectiveness.
Governments
Authority
Medicine
Politics
Therapists etc. etc.
Myths covers up the de-coupled reality “nominal” function # “latent” function. BECAUSE INSTITUTIONAL MYTHS!!!!
CONTROL: Two elements  that enables control
Efficient = predictability and calculability.

Control political side effects of efficiency predictability calculability!

Control = Two elements that enable control, calculability makes finer control of workers and customer possible. Predictability: routine prevents deviation from set rules from happening. What is unique about McDonalds control (compared to a despot’s control?

Control is not coming from a visible, personal authority, but embedded in the routine.

Institution make us  willingly submit to control.

Rationalization

German: Weberian term for Mcdonalization rationalization pursuit to efficiency by minimizing of the options in operates, by increasing predictability and calculability.

Bureaucracy

Pros:                                                            vs                                                       CONS:

  1. Obviously efficient,
vs
DEHUMANIZING
  1. More stable as an organization
vs
DISENCHANT
  1. Structures our life.
vs
KILLS OUR FREEDOM (IRON CAGE)
AT THE END = Irrationality of rationality in the excessive pursuit to efficiency bureaucracy ultimately becomes quite inefficient.

BUREAUCRACY IS BASED ON ORGANIC SOLIDARITY. Where difference values among  people compliments each other. It happens only in modern society.
Durkheim: ORGANIC societyBUREAUCRACY: has divisions of labor it is society where individuals specialize in Different roles for entire society to increase performance. (Organic or mechanical).


Example: in Russia universal characteristics of rationalized organization
  1. Division of labor specialize positions
  2. Hierarchy clear chain of command.
  3. Written formal rules everybody follows
  4. Impersonal: does not matter who is in position
  5. http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=garcinia%20cambogia&gbv=2&safe=active&um=1&ie=UTF-8&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi
THREE PLACES THAT ARE NOT BUREAUCRATIC:

The Coca-Cola Company (KO), Berkshire Hathaway Inc. (BRK.B): Why Dividend ...
Fox Business - May 6, 2013
How in the world does the average American family survive in this economy?
The median household income is a little bit less than $50,000 a year right now. So let's call that about $4000 a month. But before any of that money gets spent, you have to take out at least $1000 in taxes. That leaves about $3000 a month to pay all the bills with. With that $3000 you have to pay the mortgage (or rent), make the car payments, make the student loan payments, pay for power and water, pay for health insurance, pay for home insurance, pay for car insurance, pay the phone bill, pay the Internet bill and pay the cable bill. On top of all that, every member of the family needs three meals a day and the cars need to be filled up with gasoline or they won't go anywhere. Of course I haven't even mentioned expenses that don't happen every month such as car repairs or new shoes.  No wonder so many families are feeling so financially stressed!
The truth is that American families are getting squeezed harder than they have been in ages. The number of good jobs is declining, incomes are going down, and the cost of living just keeps going up.
The following are 17 facts that prove that the average American family is getting absolutely pulverized by this economy....
#1 The cost of a health insurance policy for the average American family rose by a whopping 9 percent last year. According to a report put out by the Kaiser Family Foundation and the Health Research and Educational Trust, the average family health insurance policy now costs over $15,000 a year.
How in the world can most families afford that? Yes, in many cases employers are paying for at least a portion of that, but still that seems absolutely outrageous.
#2 Due to rising costs, a lot of employers are completely getting rid of health plans for their employees. In fact, the percentage of Americans covered by employer-based health plans has fallen for 11 years in a row.
#3 The number of uninsured Americans continues to rise. Things have gotten so bad that an all-time record 49.9 million Americans do not have any health insurance at all.
#4 At this point, most American families are tapped out financially. According to the U.S. Labor Department, incomes and spending were both down for the second straight year in 2010.
#5 At the same time, the employment picture continues to look worse with each passing month. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the number of layoffs in the United States was up 14 percent in August.
#6 Even if you do have a job that doesn't mean that you are doing much more than surviving. According to Paul Osterman, a professor of economics at MIT, approximately 20 percent of all employed Americans are making $10.65 an hour or less.
#7 The amount of debt that the average American family has piled up is absolutely staggering. The median yearly wage in the United States is just $26,261, but the average American household is carrying $75,600 in debt.
#8 Consumer confidence is extremely low right now. If the U.S. economy was in good shape, the Consumer Confidence Index would be up around 90.  Instead, it is sitting at 45.4.
#9 Nearly every recent survey shows that the American people are feeling really depressed about the economy right now.  In fact, one poll found that 80 percent of them believe that we are actually in a recession right now.
#10 Many consumers are seriously starting to cut back on spending again, and that is not a good sign for the U.S. economy. According to one recent study, 40 percent of all Americans have cut back on their spending within the last 60 days.
#11 It certainly does not help that millions of good jobs have been shipped out of the country. Sadly, the trend of offshoring our jobs is going to continue to accelerate if something is not done. According to Professor Alan Blinder of Princeton University, 40 million more U.S. jobs could be sent offshore over the next two decades.
#12 There is a lot of fear in the workforce right now. According to Gallup, 30 percent of all employed Americans are worried that they will be laid off soon.
#13 Today, there are 5.9 million Americans between the ages of 25 and 34 that are living with their parents. That is putting an even greater strain on the budgets of many families.
#14 American families have gotten very accustomed to using plastic to pay for things. Today, the average U.S. household has 13 different credit cards.
#15 Many American families are not making it at all in this economy. Last year, 2.6 million more Americans dropped into poverty. That was the largest increase that we have seen since the U.S. government began keeping statistics on this back in 1959.
#16 For many American families, living on food stamps has become a way of life. Today, there are more than 45 million Americans on food stamps and we keep setting a brand new record almost every single month.
#17 Things have gotten so bad that many American families are selling off whatever they can in order to survive. For example, down in Florida hundreds of people have been selling off their burial plots in an attempt to raise cash. The following is an excerpt from a local news report about this new trend....
Sellers are posting online, using burial plot brokers, and also funeral homes to market the real estate. Some of those advertisements show single plots starting at about $1,000, while family plots can go for up to $50,000.
Most American families are living in a state of almost constant financial stress. Way too many parents are spending way too many sleepless nights wondering how in the world they will be able to keep their heads above water for another month.
Very few families seem to have "extra money" for stuff these days.  Yeah, there are the "privileged few", but most people are really struggling to get by.
In America today, if you are able to keep your home from being foreclosed and you are able to put food on the table and clothes on the backs of your family then you are doing pretty good.  Sadly, as our current economic crisis deepens, the average American family is going to have an even more difficult time trying to survive financially.  *Post courtesy of The Economic Collapse Blog.

http://www.sacbee.com/2013/02/11/5182556/tomato-king-salyer-faces-sentencing.html


https://smccd.mrooms.net/file.php/50893/Online_Lecture_3.mov

https://smccd.mrooms.net/file.php/50893/Online_Lecture_3.mov

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PGDpSp5CyI&feature=youtu.be

http://youtu.be/zHZVbcJrUsg

http://youtu.be/rnkuKyKOKxs

http://youtu.be/zHZVbcJrUsg
https://smccd.mrooms.net/file.php/50893/Online_Lecture_3.mov
http://video.pbs.org/video/1841157252/

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PZatrvNDOiE

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UTbI-G42JoY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OuTZJi2xjmk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUsID-TjNGw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QJ2h8TZ-38Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmMXtZhx7io
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w


http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Nature_versus_nurture.html

http://www.teds.ac.uk/publications.asp
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3091813/pdf/nihms219498.pdf
http://theweek.com/article/index/238380/9-incredible-stories-about-identical-twins
http://www.ktvu.com/news/entertainment/art-and-history-israeli-kibbutz/nbFJm/
https://webmail.stanfordmed.org/owa/?ae=Item&t=IPM.Note&id=
http://wps.aw.com/bc_johnson_humanbio_6
Guess Who ??

  Famous people

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She also attended High School with Maxine Reed who in 1963 became Lauren Nelson’s wife.

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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/united-states-of-secrets/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/asylums/
http://www.worldsfunniestcritic.com/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/united-states-of-secrets/
www.pbs.org/thenewasylums

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/the-sociological-perspective/deducing-with-sociological-imagination

the New Asylums
1.  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
1.  Free Floating Anxiety = General anxiety disorder (GAD )
2.  Feelings of Gloom and Doom = Generalize anxiety disorder.
3.  Extreme Sympathetic Nervous System Arousal ANS –arousal (panic attack)
4.  “chronic” low grade depression = PDD (Persistent Depressive Disorder
5.  Flashbacks= remembering from the past PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder )
6.  To flee= dissociative fugue
7.  Axis I = main diagnosis (general clinical disorders mental health issues) General clinic disorders.
8.  To deliberately lie about symptoms = Malingering
9.  Rigid & Perfectionistic = OCPD (Personality disorder) obsessive compulsive personality disorder.
10.      Entitlement = Narcissist /Narcissism
11.      ECT = Therapy for (severe depression)
12.      Psychological turned into physical symptoms = Conversion somatic symptom disorder.
13.      Axis II = DX. Diagnostic (personality disorders development issue)
14.      Against society = antisocial personality disorder.
15.      Irrational fear = phobia out of proportion paranoia.
16.      Dramatic – Theatrical= histrionic personality.
17.      Severe & persistent tantrums in youth = DMD (disturb mood disorder) conduct disorder opposition as adolescent.
18.      Life as waking dream – alienated from self/others. Depersonalization de-realization distance from people world does not look real.
19.      False belief = delusion- schizophrenia (affect mood. >>schizoid affective with.
20.      Loss of connection with reality =Disassociation psychosis break with reality loss connection with reality.
21.      Ritualistic activities = Compulsion.
22.      Skin Picking = BDD excoriation.
23.      Axis IV = Psycho social stress (psychosocial stress, birth, death, divorce etc.)
24.      Negative Symptoms = catatonia absence something is not there. A motivation something that is lucking schizophrenia.
25.      Hair pulling = Tricatelainjg.
26.      Bereavement exclusion = major depression disorder. (taking out of DMS V (main depression disorder)
27.      Excessive spending = Mania in bipolar
28.      Hyper sexuality = MANIA/border line dynamic
29.      AXIS V = GAF =Global assessment of function (0 =subjective, 100 = almost nobody, 80 = high function).
30.      Hopelessness = suicidal depression this has to change the hopelessness.
31.      Emotionally labile = all over the map up and down border line personality disorder.
32.      Mistrust of others = Paranoid PD (paranoid personality disorder.
33.      Diathesis – Stress = Pre disposition vulnerability biological genetically series of stress.
34.      Loner =schizo    
35.      Odd and eccentric =schizo  (section A)
36.      Extreme feelings of inadequacy = Avoidant
37.      Amplification of real or imagined bodily concern = B D D (body dysmorphic disorder)
38.      Axis III =Medical problems general EXAMPLE diabetes, asthma, broken leg etc.
39.      Delusion of persecution = SCHEZOPHREIA everybody wants my brain…..
40.      Important fact about DSM-III = Personality Disorder 1980 document “AX” 1-5 idea of going to symptoms try to be real scientific descriptive personality disorder enter DSM III.
41.      How is the GAF reflected in DSM-5?
42.      Positive symptoms = Severity scale (too much of something positive symptoms , I have more than enough)
43.      MSE = Mental status exam = Mental status exam checking word, spell back words form of assessment.
44.      TAT = thematic apperception test what we see what you persevere projective test.
45.      Inattention = ADD/ ADHD.
2.  PSYCHOLOGY 200
3.  The exam will be on 9,10,11,12.
4.  In what ways does obesity play a role in the development of a child in middle childhood (6-11)?
•     Please discuss which stage of development this would refer to in Erikson’s theory and what the child could be experiencing.
•     Please discuss which stage of Piaget’s theory this would be in and what the child could be experiencing.
•     Please discuss causes and possible preventative measures
•     Please discuss gender differences.
5.  In what way do males and females differ in motor development?
•     Talk about fine motor and gross motor development respectively.
•     Talk about maturation level between the two sexes.
•     Talk about the differences in how they play and why?
6.  Discuss information processing and the evolution of attention and memory strategies.
•     How does culture play a role in memory strategies?
•     Talk about theory of mind and how it develops as children get older.
•     Discuss the different intelligences discussed in your book. Compare and contrast them.
Midterm  Study Guide
Terms to Know

5.       Quantitative vs. Qualitative research: What do we do if we want the best of both worlds? What’s the difference? Quantitative Research: This type of research is charged with quantifying (measuring and counting) and subscribes to to a particular empirical approach to knowledge, believing that by measuring accurately enough we can make claims about the object at study.

2)    Qualitative Research: This type of research is charged with the quality or qualities of an experience or phenomenon. Qualitative research rejects the notion of their being a simple relationship between our perception of the world and the world itself, instead arguing that each individual places different meaning on different events  or experiences and that these are constantly changing. Qualitative research generally gathers text based data through exercises with a small number of participants, usually semi structured or unstructured interviews.
“Quantitative research is concerned with quantifying (measuring and counting) and subscribes to to a particular empirical approach to knowledge, believing that by measuring accurately enough we can make claims about the object at study. Due to the stringency and ‘objectivity’ of this form of research, quantitative research is often conducted in controlled settings, such as labs, to make sure that the data is as objective and unaffected by external conditions as possible. This helps with the replicability of the study, by conducting a study more than once and receiving the same or similar responses, you can be pretty sure your results are accurate. Quantitative research tends to be predictive in nature and is used to test research hypothesis, rather than descriptions of processes. Quantitative research tends to use a large number of participants, using experimental methods, or very structured psychometric questionnaires.

By contrast qualitative research is concerned with the quality or qualities of an experience or phenomenon. Qualitative research rejects the notion of their being a simple relationship between our perception of the world and the world itself, instead arguing that each individual places different meaning on different events  or experiences and that these are constantly changing. Qualitative research generally gathers text based data through exercises with a small number of participants, usually semi structured or unstructured interviews.”
’

Dependent Variable: Independent Variable (X)
The independent variable is: the variable that the researcher hypothesizes will have an effect on the dependent variable
Usually manipulated (experimental study)
The independent variable is: manipulated by means of a program, treatment, or intervention done to only one group in the study (experimental group )
The control group gets the standard treatment or no treatment.

Dependent Variable (Y)  The dependent variable is a factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. Not manipulated and pressured to vary with changes in the independent variable The variable the researcher is interested in explaining.
Randomization. Each subject in the study has an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or the experimental group.
Assumes that any important intervening, extraneous, or mediating variable will be equally distributed between the groups, minimizing variance and decreasing selection bias.
Internal Validity Asks whether the independent variable really made the difference or the change in the dependent variable. Established by ruling out other factors or threats as rival explanations. Threats to internal validity
History: an event, other than the intervention, that might have an effect on the dependent variable; the event could be either inside or outside the experimental setting.
Testing:  Taking the same test more than once can influence the participant’s responses the next time test is taken.
Threats to Internal Validity:
Mortality: the loss of study subjects
Selection bias : a  partiality in choosing the participants in a study.
Objectivity in Conceptualization of the Research Questions. (week sixth)
Type of design chosen Accuracy/Feasibility/Control and intervention  fidelity/Accuracy
Accomplished through the theoretical framework and literature review
All aspects of the study systematically and logically follow form the research questions.
Feasibility:
Validity: internal and external Objectivity can be achieved form a thorough review of the literature and the development of a theoretical framework.
Time: Is there enough time for completion of the study.
Subject availability: Are a sufficient number of eligibility subjects available?
Facility and  equipment availability:  are there necessary equipment and facilities available?
Expense: Is money available for the projected cost?
Experience: is the study based on the researcher’s experience and interest?
Ethics: could subject be harmed?
CONTROL

Terms to Know
2. Reasoning:  A priori method (proposed by Charles Peirce): a person develops a belief by reasoning, listening to others’ reasoning, and drawing on previous intellectual knowledge – not based on experience or direct observation.  So now that we have a firm grounding in some of the basic theories and theorists within psychology, and a basic understanding of the multiple conceptions of personality and how it develops, the logical next step is to explore how we come to these conclusions with regard to models of personality and other psychological concepts. In other words, how do we scientifically ascertain whether these theories hold water, and how we can most accurately quantify and categorize human behavior, while still attempting to allow for the grey area of individual differences?


Well, Psychological Research is defined as the scientific exploration, designed to describe, predict, and control human behavior, and to understand the hard facts of the human mind across diverse psychological and cross-cultural populations.


Ø     first way is Authority, because someone told us that something is true. This could be any authority figure, like a professor, or someone in the media. Because someone told us it’s the truth, we often believe it to be so. Obviously, this has issues from a scientific perspective. When engaging in research we can’t rely on what others tell us alone, we need to have hard, replicable data to support it.


Ø     The second method is Reasoning. The main method of reasoning is the A priori method (proposed by Charles Peirce): where a person develops a
8.     Experience-Based errors in thinking:
Availability Heuristic - An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.
As a result, you might judge that those events are more frequent and possible than others and tend to overestimate the probability and likelihood of similar things happening in the future.


 Finally, the last common error in psychological research is the Availability Heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.



 When you are trying to make a decision, a number of related events or situations might immediately spring to the forefront of your thoughts. As a result, you might judge that those events are more frequent and possible than others. You give greater credence to this information and tend to overestimate the probability and likelihood of similar things happening in the future.


20.      Ethnography (Ethnographic Methods): Ethnographic methods: A type of social scientific method that gains insight into social relations through participant observation, interviews, and the analysis of art, texts, and oral histories. It is commonly used to analyze culture and is the most common method of anthropology.
 Social Science Research Methods  In the scientific community, and particularly in psychology and health, there has been an  active and ongoing debate on the relative merits of adopting either quantitative or qualitative methods, especially when researching into human behavior
 (Bowling, 2009; Oakley, 2000; Smith, 1995a, 1995b; Smith, 1998). In part, this debate formed a component of the development in the 1970s of our thinking about science. Andrew Pickering has described this movement as the “sociology of scientific knowledge” (SSK), where our scientific understanding, developing scientific ‘products’ and ‘know-how’, became identified as forming components in a wider engagement with society’s environmental and social context
(Pickering, 1992, pp. 1). Since that time, the debate has continued so that today there is an increasing acceptance of the use of qualitative methods in the social sciences


Grounded Theory - is frequently considered to offer researchers a suitable qualitative method for in-depth exploratory investigations. . It is a rigorous approach which provides the researcher with a set of systematic strategies and assumes that when investigating social processes qualitatively from the bottom up there will be an emergence of a working theory about the population from the qualitative data (Willig, 2008, pp. 44).


qualitative or quantitative components can predominate, or both can have equal status.


1.     Types of Unscientific thinking :
(UN) SCIENTIFIC THINKING:   Because someone told us that something is true.
Not adhering to the principles of science. Not knowledgeable about science or the scientific method.
belief by reasoning, listening to others’ reasoning, and drawing on previous intellectual knowledge – not based on experience or direct observation. While this might work when developing opinions in day-to-day life, we can’t say that this gives us hard facts that are generalizable to any population. Opinions derived from this method, however can be said to create a good starting point for research.
Not adhering to the principles of science.
Not knowledgeable about science or the scientific method.
not scientific; not employed in science.
not conforming to the principles or methods of science.
not demonstrating scientific knowledge or scientific methods.
Not consistent with the methods or principles of science; "an unscientific lack of objectivity"Unreliable self-report data
Unsubstantiated observations
Post-hoc, unsystematic summaries
Speculation and over generalization


2.     Experience-Based errors in thinking: Experimental methods: The most powerful method used in the social sciences, albeit the most difficult to use. It manipulates individuals in a particular way (the treatment) and explores the impact of this treat- ment. It offers powerful insight by controlling the environment, thereby allowing researchers to isolate the impact of the treatment. Experience-Based errors in thinking: Availability Heuristic - An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.

As a result, you might judge that those events are more frequent and possible than others and tend to overestimate the probability and likelihood of similar things happening in the future.

Finally, the last common error in psychological research is the Availability Heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.

When you are trying to make a decision, a number of related events or situations might immediately spring to the forefront of your thoughts. As a result, you might judge that those events are more frequent and possible than others. You give greater credence to this information and tend to overestimate the probability and likelihood of similar things happening in the future.

The term was first coined in 1973 by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. They suggested that the availability heuristic occurs unconsciously and operates under the principle that "if you can think of it, it must be important." Things that come to mind more easily are believed to be far more common and more accurate reflections of the real world.

3.    The scientific method:  A way of knowing characterized by the attempt to apply systematic, objective, empirical methods when searching for causes of natural events.
Probabilistic Statistical determinism: Based on what we have observed, is the likelihood of two events occurring together (whether causal, predictive, or simple relational) greater than chance?
Objectivity: without bias of the experimenter or participants.
Data-driven: conclusions are based on the data-- objective information.
Well, we have what is known as the scientific method:
The Scientific Method Is a way of knowing characterized by the attempt to apply systematic, objective, empirical methods when searching for causes of natural events.
It utilizes probabilistic statistical determinism, asking the data given what we have observed, is the likelihood of two events occurring together (whether causal, predictive, or simple relational) greater than chance?
It utilizes, or attempts to utilize Objectivity: producing or participating in research without bias of the experimenter or participants.
And finally, and most importantly, its Data-driven: conclusions are based on the data-- objective information, and mathematical facts.
Steps of The Scientific Method
Ask a Question
Do Background Research
Construct a Hypothesis
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
Communicate Your Results
Scientific Thinking in Research
CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
Empirical: All information is based on observation.
Objectivity: Observations are verified by others.
Systematic: Observations are made in a step-by-step fashion.
Controlled: Potentially confusing factors are eliminated.
Public: Built on previous research, open to critique and replication, building towards theories


Lawful: Every event can be understood as a sequence of natural causes and effects.
Determinism: Events and behaviors have causes.
Discoverability: Through systematic observation, we can discover causes – and work towards more certain and comprehensive explanations through repeated discoveries.
Now all of this couldn’t work if we didn’t make some assumptions about behavior when engaging in scientific research.
We assume, as experimental psychologists that:
Lawful: Every event can be understood as a sequence of natural causes and effects.
As psychological researchers we believe in Determinism: That events and behaviors have causes. And we also believe in Discoverability: Through systematic observation, we can discover causes – and work towards more certain and comprehensive explanations through repeated discoveries.
Research Question
Deduction: Reasoning from a set of general statements towards the prediction of some specific event. Based on a theory, one can deduct an event or behavior given particular conditions.
Hypothesis: Prediction about specific events that is derived from the theory.
Induction: Logical process of reasoning from specific events to the theory (either confirming or disproving the theory).
From theory to actual research So what is the Relationship between theory and data you might ask?
Well the first relationship is Deduction: Reasoning from a set of general statements towards the prediction of some specific event. Based on a theory, one can deduct an event or behavior given particular conditions.
The second is that we can form a Hypothesis: Prediction about specific events that is derived from the theory.
And finally, the last one is Induction: Logical process of reasoning from specific events to the theory (either confirming or disproving the theory).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E2Q3-OHyeUA
The various methodologies of social science research, but before we do so we will review a bit some of the core aspects of the research process.
So, in common with other sciences, psychology and sociology are both concerned with theories and with data.
A theory provides a general explanation or account of certain findings or data. It also generates a number of experimental hypotheses, which are predictions or expectations about behavior based on the theory. For example, someone might propose a theory in which it is
argued that some people are more hostile than others. This theory could be used to produce various hypotheses or predictions, such as the following: hostile people will express anger more often than non-hostile ones; hostile people will react more strongly than non-hostile
ones to frustrating situations; hostile people will be more sarcastic than non-hostile people.
Psychologists spend a lot of their time collecting data in the form of measures of behavior. Data are collected in order to test various hypotheses. Most people assume that this data collection involves proper or true experiments carried out under laboratory conditions,and it is true that literally millions of laboratory experiments have been carried out in psychology. However, psychologists make use of several methods of investigation,each of which has provided useful information about human behavior.
As you read through the various methods of investigation in your textbook and listen to them in our lectures, it is natural to wonder which methods are the best and the worst as was the topic in our last discussion question. In some ways, it may be more useful to compare the methods used by psychologists to the clubs used by the golf professional. The driver is not a better or worse club than the putter, it is simply used for a different purpose.
In similar fashion, each method of investigation used by psychologists is very useful for testing some hypotheses, but is of little or no use for testing other hypotheses.
However, as we will discuss further the experimental method provides the best way of being able to make inferences about cause and effect.
4.     Assumptions about behavior in research: Assumptions about behavior in research: ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT BEHAVIORS OR OBSERVATIONS:  Social Science Research Methods In many studies, use is made of pre-existing groups of people. For example, we might compare the performance of males and females, or that of young and middle-aged individuals.

Do such studies qualify as genuine experiments? The answer is “No”. Use of the experimental method requires that the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter, but clearly the experimenter cannot decide whether a given person is going to be male or female for the purposes of the study! What is generally regarded as the greatest advantage of the experimental method is that it allows us to establish cause and effect relationships. In the terms we have been using, the independent variable in an experiment is often regarded as a cause, and the dependent variable is the effect. Philosophers of science have argued about whether or not causality can be established by  experimentation. However, the general opinion is that causality can only be inferred. If y (e.g. poor performance) follows x (e.g. intense noise), then it is reasonable to infer that x caused y.



5.     Theory: Definition of a theory: A set of logically consistent statements about some psychological phenomenon that best summarizes existing empirical knowledge of the phenomenon organizes this knowledge in the form of precise statements of the relationship among variables provides a tentative explanation for the phenomenon serves as a basis for making predictions about behavior. So we have our method, we have our assumptions, so how do we actually do research? Relationship between theory and data


6.      Hypothesis: Prediction about specific events that is derived from the theory. Induction: Logical process of reasoning from specific events to the theory (either confirming or disproving the theory).
Definition: A way of knowing characterized by the attempt to apply systematic, objective, empirical methods when searching for causes of natural events. Probabilistic Statistical determinism: Based on what we have observed, is the likelihood of two events occurring together (whether causal, predictive, or simple relational) greater than chance? Objectivity: without bias of the experimenter or participants. Data-driven: conclusions are based on the data-- objective information. Data-driven: conclusions are based on the data-- objective information.



7


8.      Relationship between theory and data

9.     Method: A technique used to analyze data. Commonly, a method is aligned with a particular strategy for gathering data, as particular methods commonly require particular types of data. “Method” is therefore commonly used to refer to strategies for both analyzing and gathering data.

10.     Methodology: A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by researchers to offer insight into the workings of the world.

11.     Insight: Evidence contributing to an understanding of a case or set of cases. Comparative-historical researchers are generally most concerned with causal insight, or insight into causal processes

12.     Comparative Historical Analysis (Know different types): Comparative Historical Analysis (Know different types): Comparative methods: Diverse methods used in the social sciences that offer insight through cross-case comparison. For this, they com- pare the characteristics of different cases and highlight similarities and

historical analysis in recognition of the tradi- tion’s growing multidisciplinary character. In addition to sociology, comparative-historical analysis is quite prominent in political science and is present—albeit much more marginally—in history, economics, and anthropology. differences between them. Comparative methods are usually used to explore causes that are common among a set of cases. They are commonly used in all social scientific disciplines.
4 types of comparative-historical research
     i.        Historical Events Research –focuses on one short historical period (1 case, 1 time period)
    ii.        Historical Process Research –traces a sequence of events over a number of years (1 case, many time periods)
   iii.        Cross-sectional Comparative Research -- comparing data from one time period between two or more nations (many cases, 1 time period)
  iv.        Comparative Historical Research – longitudinal comparative research (many cases) over a prolonged period of time
Comparative and Historical Research by number of cases and length of time studied Historical Methods
13.     Epistemology: A branch of philosophy that considers the possibility of knowledge and understanding. Within the social sciences, epistemological debates commonly focus on the possibility of gaining insight into the causes of social phenomena

14.     Variable: Something that the researcher/experimenter can measure.

15.     Positivism: An epistemological approach that was popular among most of the founding figures of the social sciences. It claims that the scientific method is the best way to gain insight into our world. Within the social sciences, positivism suggests that scientific methods can be used to analyze social relations in order to gain knowledge. At its extreme, positivism suggests that the analysis of social relations through scientific methods allows researchers to discover laws that govern all social relations. Positivism is therefore linked to nomothetic explanations. Other positivists believe social complexity prevents the discovery of social laws, but they still believe that the scientific method allows researchers to gain insight into the determinants of social phenomena.

16.     Ethnography (Ethnographic Methods) A type of social scientific method that gains insight into social relations through participant observation, interviews, and the analysis of art, texts, and oral histories. It is commonly used to analyze culture and is the most common method of anthropology.

17.     Case Study (definition, when it is used, different types) Case Study (Within-case methods): A category of methods used in the social sciences that offer insight into the determinants of a particular phenomenon for a particular case. For this, they analyze the processes and characteristics of the case.

18.      Meta analysis: A study of multiple Case Studies
1. The logic for such a cross-case synthesis emulates that used in addressing whether the findings from a set of multiple experiments—too small in number to be made part of any quantitative meta-analysis (a study of the results of other studies)—support any broader pattern of conclusions.
2.      The replication or corroboratory frameworks can vary. In a direct replication, the single cases would be predicted to arrive at similar results. Discussed earlier was the desire to apply a replication logic in interpreting the findings across the cases in a multiple-case study. The logic for such a cross-case synthesis emulates that used in addressing whether the findings from a set of multiple experiments—too small in number to be made part of any quantitative meta-analysis—support any broader pattern of conclusions.  The replication or corroboratory frameworks can vary. In a direct replication, the single cases would be predicted to arrive at similar results.   In a theoretical replication, each single case’s ultimate disposition also would have been predicted beforehand, but each case might have been predicted to produce a varying or even contrasting result, based on the preconceived propositions. Even more complex could be the stipulation and emergence of a typology of cases based on a multiple-case study.

19.      Ideographic Explanation: Ideographic explanation: Causal explanations that explore the causes of a particular case. Such explanations are not meant to apply to a larger set of cases and commonly focus on the particularities of the case under analysis

23.     Validity: internal and external Objectivity can be achieved form a thorough review of the literature and the development of a theoretical framework.  The literature review should be presented so that the reader can judge the objectivity of the research questions. Purpose of Research Design Provides the plan or blueprint for testing research questions and hypotheses. Involves structure and strategy to maintain control and intervention fidelity.
26.     Variable: Something that the researcher/experimenter can measure.

27.     Independent Variable: The variable the experimenter has control over, can change in some way to see if it has an effect on other variables in the study.

28.     Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to see if a place: change takes.

29.     Control Variable: The variable that is not manipulated that serves as a comparison group from the other variables in the study. This third variable is used to ensure that the independent variable, when manipulated is actually having an effect on the dependent variable. For example, if a similar change occurs in the control variable as the dependent variable, this indicates that the change may not be the result of the independent variable manipulation and may be a natural change in the variable. In a experiment the researcher manipulates the independent variable to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable.
30.     Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal research:
Control: Achieved with steps taken by the searcher to hold the conditions of the study uniform and avoid or decrease the effect of intervening, extraneous, or mediating variables of the dependent variable or outcome.
Intervention Fidelity
Intervention fidelity: Ensures that every subject receiving the intervention of treatment receive the identical intervention or treatment.
Intervening, Extraneous, Or Mediating Variables.
 CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
Empirical: All information is based on observation.
Objectivity: Observations are verified by others.
Systematic: Observations are made in a step-by-step fashion.
Controlled: Potentially confusing factors are eliminated.

Basic vs. Applied Research : Goal of describing, predicting, & explaining fundamental principles of behavior vs. solving real-life problems
2. Laboratory Research versus Field Research Research in controlled laboratories vs. uncontrolled or real-life contexts is actually more crucial. The use of statistics to analyze the data is, however, the element that puts a lot of people off doing quantitative research, as the mathematics underlying the methods seems complicated and frightening. As we will see later on in this book, most researchers do not really have to be particularly expert in the mathematics underlying the methods, as computer software allows us to do the analyses quickly and (relatively) easily.
Variable :  Independent Variable (X) The independent variable is: the variable that the researcher hypothesiszes will have an effect on the dependent variable
Usually manipulated (experimental study)
The independent variable is: manipulated by means of a program, treatment, or intervention done to only one group in the study (experimental group )
The control group gets the standard treatment or no treatment.
Dependent Variable: Independent Variable (X)
16) Can we generalize at all from a Case Study?
To the extent that any study concerns itself with generalizing, case studies tend to generalize to other situations (on the basis of analytic claims), whereas surveys and other quantitative methods tend to generalize to populations (on the basis of statistical claims).
determine whether you can make any generalizations from your case study. One available procedure applies well to all kinds of case studies, including the holistic, single-case study that has been commonly criticized for having little or no generalizability
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The method of investigation used most often by psychologists is the experimental method. In order to understand what is involved in the experimental method, we will consider a concrete example.
Dependent and independent variables
Suppose that a psychologist wants to test the experimental hypothesis that loud noise will have a disruptive effect on the performance of a task. As with most hypotheses, this
known types of errors in experience-based conclusions and in psychological research in general.
Experience based errors in thinking Illusory Correlation
Definition:  thinking that one has observed an association between events that
(a) doesn’t exist,
 (b) exists but is not as strong as is believed,
 or (c) is in the opposite direction from what is believed.
The first one is an Illusory Correlation, or thinking that one has observed an association between events that either:
 Experience based errors in thinking: Confirmation Bias –
In psychology and cognitive science, confirmation bias (or confirmatory bias) is a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions, leading to statistical errors.
The second error in thinking is Confirmation Bias –  Comparative methods: Diverse methods used in the social sciences that offer insight through cross-case comparison. For this, they com- pare the characteristics of different cases and highlight similarities and differences between them. Comparative methods are usually used to explore causes that are common among a set of cases. They are commonly used in all social scientific disciplines.
 Epistemology: A branch of philosophy that considers the possibility of knowledge and understanding. Within the social sciences, epistemological debates commonly focus on the possibility of gaining insight into the causes of social phenomena.
 Experimental methods: The most powerful method used in the social sciences, albeit the most difficult to use. It manipulates individuals in a particular way (the treatment) and explores the impact of this treat- ment. It offers powerful insight by controlling the environment, thereby allowing researchers to isolate the impact of the treatment.
 Case Study (Within-case methods): A category of methods used in the social sciences that offer insight into the determinants of a particular phenomenon for a particular case. For this, they analyze the processes and characteristics of the case.

Ideographic explanation: Causal explanations that explore the causes of a particular case. Such explanations are not meant to apply to a larger set of cases and commonly focus on the particularities of the case under analysis.
 Insight: Evidence contributing to an understanding of a case or set of cases. Comparative-historical researchers are generally most concerned with causal insight, or insight into causal processes.


Statistical methods: The most common subtype of comparative methods. It operationalizes variables for several cases, compares the cases to explore relationships between the variables, and uses probability theory to estimate causal effects or risks. Within the social sciences, statistics uses natural variation to approximate experimental methods. There are diverse subtypes of statistical methods.

Variable: Something that the researcher/experimenter can measure.
Independent Variable: The variable the experimenter has control over, can change in some way to see if it has an effect on other variables in the study.
Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to see if a change takes place:
Control Variable: The variable that is not manipulated that serves as a comparison group from the other variables in the study. This third variable is used to ensure that the independent variable, when manipulated is actually having an effect on the dependent variable. For example, if a similar change occurs in the control variable as the dependent variable, this indicates that the change may not be the result of the independent variable manipulation and may be a natural change in the variable.
In a experiment the researcher manipulates the independent variable to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable.
 Empirical: All information is based on observation.
  Objectivity: Observations are verified by others.
 Systematic: Observations are made in a step-by-step fashion.

  Controlled: Potentially confusing factors are eliminated.
 Public: Built on previous research, open to critique and replication, building towards theories
 Hypothesis: Prediction about specific events that is derived from the theory.
 Induction: Logical process of reasoning from specific events to the theory (either confirming or disproving the theory).
 Relationship between theory and data
 Deduction: Reasoning from a set of general statements towards the prediction of some specific event. Based on a theory, one can deduct an event or behavior given particular conditions.

Ø  Scientific Method: Definition: A way of knowing characterized by the attempt to apply systematic, objective, empirical methods when searching for causes of natural events.
Probabilistic Statistical determinism: Based on what we have observed, is the likelihood of two events occurring together (whether causal, predictive, or simple relational) greater than chance?
Objectivity: without bias of the experimenter or participants.
Data-driven: conclusions are based on the data-- objective information.
Well, we have what is known as the scientific method:

     Steps of The Scientific Method
Ø      Ask a Question
Ø       Do Background Research
Ø       Construct a Hypothesis
Ø       Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
Ø       Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
Ø       Communicate Your Results
Scientific Thinking in Research
CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
Empirical: All information is based on observation.
Objectivity: Observations are verified by others.
Systematic: Observations are made in a step-by-step fashion.
Controlled: Potentially confusing factors are eliminated.
Public: Built on previous research, open to critique and replication, building towards theories

Lawful: Every event can be understood as a sequence of natural causes and effects.
Determinism: Events and behaviors have causes.
Discoverability: Through systematic observation, we can discover causes – and work towards more certain and comprehensive explanations through repeated discoveries.
    External Validity - The extent to which a study's results (regardless of whether the study is descriptive or experimental) can be generalized/applied to other people or settings reflects its external validity. Typically, group research employing randomization will initially possess higher external validity than will studies (e.g., case studies and single-subject experimental research) that do not use random selection/assignment. Internal Validity

    External Validity Reliability and Validity and Field Vs. Laboratory Research Field Research: High internal validity, low external validity, Low reliability.
Laboratory Research: High external validity, low internal validity, High reliability.
Social Science Research Methods


Comparative- Historical methods
Since the rise of the social sciences, researchers have used comparative- historical methods to expand insight into diverse social phenomena and, in so doing, have made great contributions to our understanding of the social world.
Comparative-Historical Analysis
Mahoney and Rueschemeyer (2003) refer to it as comparative-historical analysis in recognition of the tradition’s growing multidisciplinary character. In addition to sociology, comparative-historical analysis is quite prominent in political science and is present—albeit much more marginally—in history, economics, and anthropology.
4 types of comparative-historical research
• Historical Events Research –focuses on one short historical period (1 case, 1 time period)
• Historical Process Research –traces a sequence of events over a number of years (1 case, many time periods)
• Cross-sectional Comparative Research comparing data from one time period between two or more nations (many cases, 1 time period)
• Comparative Historical Research – longitudinal comparative research (many cases)
Comparative and Historical Research by number of cases and length of time studied
Comparative and Historical Research by number of cases and length of time studied
 How do we understand Comparative Historical Research?
comparative-historical analysis has four main defining elements. Two are methodological, as works within the research tradition employ both within-case methods and comparative methods. Comparative-historical analysis is also defined by epistemology. Specifically, comparative-historical works pursue social scientific insight and therefore accept the possibility of gaining insight through comparative-historical
 Secondary Sources – Collecting data from others who have already collected the data such as news papers, magazines, and interviews.These sources of data are prone to the bias of the source, therefore the data may be somewhat inaccurate.

• Narrative. It researches a story involving specific actors and other events occurring at the same time (Abbott, 1994:102), or one that takes account of the position of actors and events in time and in a unique historical context (Griffin, 1992).
• Inductive. The research develops an explanation for what happened from the details discovered about the past.
Historical Events Research & Event-Structure Analysis
It often utilizes a process known as Historical Events Research.
Historical events research is research on past events that does not follow processes for some long period of time—that is basically cros-ssectional—is historical events research rather than historical process research.
Event Structure Analysis is a qualitative approach that relies on a systematic coding of key events or national characteristics to identify the underlying structure of action in a chronology of events.
Case Study Method: “An empirical inquiry about a contemporary phenomenon (e.g., a “case”), set within its real-world context—especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin, 2009a, p. 18; SagePub, 2014)’


 The case study method embraces the full set of procedures needed to do case study research. These tasks include designing a case study, collecting the study’s data, analyzing the data, and presenting and reporting the results All case study research starts from the same compelling feature: the desire to derive an up-close or otherwise in-depth understanding of a single or small number of “cases,” set in their real-world contexts (e.g., Bromley, 1986, p. 1).  The closeness aims to produce an invaluable and deep understanding—that is, an insightful appreciation of the “case(s)”—hopefully resulting in new learning about real-world behavior and its meaning. The distinctiveness of the case study, therefore, also serves as its abbreviated definition:

3) Assumptions:   “Among other features, case study research assumes that examining the context and other complex conditions related to the case(s) being studied are integral to understanding the case(s) (SagePub, 2014).”
Thus, among other features, case study research assumes that examining the context and other complex conditions related to the case(s) being studied are integral to understanding the case(s).  The in-depth focus on the case(s), as well as the desire to cover a broader range of contextual and other complex conditions, produce a wide range of topics to be covered by any given case study. In this sense, case study research goes beyond the study of isolated variables. As a by-product, and as a final feature in appreciating case study research, the relevant case study data are likely to come from multiple and not singular sources of evidence.
4) When to use the Case Study Method:    “First and most important, the choices among different research methods, including the case study method, can be determined by the kind of research question that a study is trying to address (e.g., Shavelson & Towne, 2002, pp. 99–106, SagePub, 2014).”
“Second, by emphasizing the study of a phenomenon within its real-world context, the case study method favors the collection of data in natural settings, compared with relying on “derived” data (Bromley, 1986, p. 23, SagePub, 2014)”
Third, the case study method is now commonly used in conducting evaluations (SagePub, 2014).
11) Presenting your Case: You need to present the evidence in your case study with sufficient clarity (e.g., in separate texts, tables, and exhibits) to allow readers to judge independently your later interpretation of the data.
Ideally, such evidence will come from a formal case study database that you compile for your files after completing your data collection.
Properly dealing with case study evidence requires a final but essential practice:
You need to present the evidence in your case study with sufficient clarity (e.g., in separate texts, tables, and exhibits) to allow readers to judge independently your later interpretation of the data. Ideally, such evidence will come from a formal case study database that you compile for your files after completing your data collection.
Unfortunately, older case studies frequently mixed evidence and interpretation.
This practice may still be excusable when doing a unique case study or a revelatory
case study, because the insights may be more important than knowing the strength of the evidence for such insights. However, for most case studies, mixing evidence and interpretation may be taken as a sign that you do not understand the difference between the two or that you do not know how to handle data (and hence proceeded prematurely to interpretation)
13) Techniques
Pattern-Matching
Open-Ended Questions
Time-Series-Like Analysis
If selecting your case(s) to be studied is the most critical step in doing case study research, analyzing your case study data is probably the most troublesome.
Much of the problem relates to false expectations: that the data will somehow “speak for themselves,” or that some counting or tallying procedure will be sufficient to produce the main findings for a case study. Wrong. Instead, consider the following alternatives. You actually made some key assumptions for your analysis when you defined your research questions and your case. Was your motive in doing the case study mainly to address your research questions? If so, then the techniques for analyzing the data might be directed at those questions first. Was your motive to derive more general lessons for which your case(s) are but examples? If so, your analysis might be directed at these
21.     Case Study (definition, when it is used, different types):
Case Study Data Analysis  Whether using computer software to help you or not, the researcher will be the one who must define the codes to be used and the procedures for logically piecing together the coded evidence into broader themes—in essence creating your own unique algorithm befitting your particular case study. The strength of the analytic course will depend on a marshaling of claims that use your data in a logical fashion.
Your analysis can begin by systematically organizing your data (narratives and words) into hierarchical relationships, matrices, or other arrays (e.g., Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Case study analysis takes many forms, but none yet follow the routine procedures that may exist with other research methods. The absence of any cookbook for analyzing case study evidence has been only partially offset by the development of prepackaged computer software programs. They can support the analysis of large amounts of narrative text by following your instructions in coding and categorizing your notes or your verbatim transcripts. However, unlike software for analyzing numeric data, whereby an analyst provides the input data and the computer uses an algorithm to estimate some model and proceeds to produce the output data, there is no automated algorithm when analyzing narrative data
24.      Basic vs. Applied Research :
Basic versus Applied Research
Goal of describing, predicting, & explaining fundamental principles
of behavior vs. solving real-life problems
2. Laboratory Research versus Field Research
Research in controlled laboratories vs. uncontrolled or real-life contexts
3. Quantitative versus Qualitative  Research
Descriptive & inferential statistics vs. narrative analysis (e.g., case studies, observational research, interviews)

27.       Quantitative vs. Qualitative research:    Quantitative Research: An Overview
Mathematically based  Often uses survey-based measures to collect data
Often collects data on what is known as a “Likert-scale” a 4-7 point numerical scale which a participant rates agreement  Uses statistical methodology to analyze numerical data  As quantitative research is essentially about collecting numerical
data to explain a particular phenomenon, particular questions seem immediately
suited to being answered using quantitative methods
The number of phenomena we can study in this way is almost unlimited, making quantitative research quite flexible. This is not to say that all phenomena are best studied by quantitative methods. As we will see, while quantitative methods have some notable advantages, they also have
disadvantages, which means that some phenomena are better studied by
using different (qualitative) methods.
The last part of the definition refers to the use of mathematically based
methods, in particular statistics, to analyze the data. This is what people
usually think about when they think of quantitative research,
and is often seen as the most important part of quantitative studies. This is a bit of a misconception, as, while using the right data analysis tools obviously matters
a great deal, using the right research design and data collection instruments
is actually more crucial. The use of statistics to analyze the data is, however, the element that puts a lot of people off doing quantitative research, as the mathematics underlying the methods seems complicated and frightening. As we will see later on in this book, most researchers do not really have to be particularly expert in the
6) When to use Quantitative Research
1) When we are looking for a numerical answer
2) When we want to study numerical change
3) When we want to find out about the state of something or to explain a phenomena
4) When we want to test a hypothesis
If we take a pragmatic approach to research methods, the main question
that we need to answer is ‘what kind of questions are best answered by
using quantitative as opposed to qualitative methods?’
There are four main types of research questions that quantitative research
is particularly suited to finding an answer to:
1. The first type of research question is that demanding a quantitative
answer. Examples are: ‘How many students choose to study education?’
or ‘How many math teachers do we need and how many have we got in
our school district?’ That we need to use quantitative research to answer
this kind of question is obvious. Qualitative, non-numerical methods
will obviously not provide us with the (numerical) answer we want.
2. Numerical change can likewise accurately be studied only by using quantitative
methods. Are the numbers of students in our university rising or
falling? Is achievement going up or down? We’ll need to do a quantitative
study to find out.
3. As well as wanting to find out about the state of something or other, we
often want to explain phenomena. What factors predict the recruitment
of math teachers? What factors are related to changes in student
achievement over time? As we will see later on in this book, this kind of
question can also be studied successfully by quantitative methods, and
many statistical techniques have been developed that allow us to predict
scores on one factor, or variable (e.g. teacher recruitment) from scores on
one or more other factors, or variables (e.g. unemployment rates, pay,
conditions).
4. The final activity for which quantitative research is especially suited is
the testing of hypotheses. We might want to explain something – for
example, whether there is a relationship between pupil’s achievement
and their self-esteem and social background. We could look at the theory
and come up with the hypothesis that lower social class background
leads to low self-esteem, which would in turn be related to low achievement.
Using quantitative research, we can try to test this kind of model.
Problems one and two above are called ‘descriptive’. We are merely trying
to describe a situation. Three and four are ‘inferential’. We are trying to
explain something rather than just describe it.
7) Advantages and Disadvantages:  Quantitative
Quantitative Advantages:
Concise
Accurate
Strictly Controlled
Replicable
Can indicate causation
Ideally is objective
 

Quantitative Disadvantages:
Limited understanding of individuality
Groups people into categories
Can be accused of oversimplifying human nature
When we think about the advantages of quantitative research, the first thing we will acknowledge is that it is the dominant approach in psychological research. Its concise, accurate and can be strictly controlled to ensure that the results are replicable and that causation is established. Quantitative data also has predictive power in that research can be generalized to a different setting. It can also be a lot faster and easier to analyze qualitative data.

While Quantitative research , there are other types of questions that are not
well suited to quantitative methods.

1. The first situation where quantitative research will fail is when we want
to explore a problem in depth. Quantitative research is good at providing
information in breadth, from a large number of units, but when we
want to explore a problem or concept in depth, quantitative methods
can be too shallow. To really get under the skin of a phenomenon, we
will need to go for ethnographic methods, interviews, in-depth case
studies and other qualitative techniques.


2. We saw above that quantitative research is well suited for the testing of
theories and hypotheses. What quantitative methods cannot do very
well is develop hypotheses and theories. The hypotheses to be tested may
come from a review of the literature or theory, but can also be developed
by using exploratory qualitative research.


3. If the issues to be studied are particularly complex, an in-depth qualitative
study (a case study, for example) is more likely to pick up on this
than a quantitative study. This is partly because there is a limit to how
many variables can be looked at in any one quantitative study, and partly
because in quantitative research the researcher defines the variables to be
studied herself, while in qualitative research unexpected variables may
emerge.


4. Finally, while quantitative methods are best for looking at cause and
effect (causality, as it is known), qualitative methods are more suited to
looking at the meaning of particular events or circumstances.


Focus on “language rather than numbers”
“Embraces “intersubjectivity” or how people may construct meaning…”
Focus on the individual and their real lived experience
Qualitative methods have much to offer when we need to explore people’s feelings or ask
participants to reflect on their experiences. As was noted above, some of the earliest
psychological thinkers of the late 19th century and early 20th century may be regarded as
proto-qualitative researchers. Examples include the ‘founding father’ of psycho-analysis,
Sigmund Freud, who worked in Vienna (late 19th century – to mid 20th century), recorded
and published numerous case-studies and then engaged in analysis, postulation and
theorizing on the basis of his observations, and the pioneering Swiss developmental
psychologist, Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) who meticulously observed and recorded his
children’s developing awareness and engagement with their social world. They were
9) Advantages and Disadvantages: Qualitative


Qualitative Advantages:
Appreciates research participant’s individuality
Provides insider view of research question
Less structured than quantitative approach
Qualitative Disadvantages:
Not always appropriate to generalize results to larger population
10) Qualitative Research in Psychology


Today, a growing number of psychologists are re-examining and re-exploring qualitative
methods for psychological research, challenging the more traditional ‘scientific’
experimental approach (see, for example, Gergen, 1991; 1985; Smith et al., 1995a, 1995b).
There is a move towards a consideration of what these other methods can offer to
psychology ( Bruner, 1986; Smith et al.,1995a
Content and Thematic Analysis
Grounded Theory (Generating Theory from Data)
Discourse and Narrative Analysis
12) When to use Qualitative Research  Content and Thematic Analysis - Content Analysis, or Thematic Analysis (the terms are frequently used interchangeably and generally mean much the same), is particularly useful for conceptual, or thematic, analysis or relational analysis. It can quantify the occurrences of concepts selected for examination (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003).
Randomization  Each subject in the study has an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or the experimental group.
Assumes that any important intervening, extraneous, or mediating variable will be equally distributed between the groups, minimizing variance and decreasing selection bias.
Internal Validity
Asks whether the independent variable really made the difference or the change in the dependent variable.
Established by ruling out other factors or threats as rival explanations.
Threats to internal validity
History: an event, other than the intervention, that might have an effect on the dependent
Experience: is the study based on the researcher’s experience and interest?
Ethics: could subject be harmed?
CONTROL
Control: Achieved with steps taken by the searcher to hold the conditions of the study uniform and avoid or decrease the effect of intervening, extraneous, or mediating variables of the dependent variable or outcome.
Intervention Fidelity
Intervention fidelity: Ensures that every subject receiving the intervention of treatment receive the identical intervention or treatment.
Intervening, Extraneous, Or Mediating Variables.
Variables that occur during the study that interfere with or influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Intervening and mediating variables are processes that occur during the study.
Extraneous variables are subject, researcher, or environmental characteristics that might influence the dependent variable. “muck up the study!!!!”
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Using a homogeneous sample
Using consistent data-collection procedures- constancy.


8.     Method : Method: A technique used to analyze data. Commonly, a method is aligned with a particular strategy for gathering data, as particular methods commonly require particular types of data. “Method” is therefore commonly used to refer to strategies for both analyzing and gathering data.


Methodology: A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by researchers to offer insight into the workings of the world.



Ø  11.      Comparative Historical Analysis (Know different types): 
historical analysis in recognition of the tradi- tion’s growing multidisciplinary character. In addition to sociology, comparative-historical analysis is quite prominent in political science and is present—albeit much more marginally—in history, economics, and anthropology.
4 types of comparative-historical research;
Historical Events Research –focuses on one short historical period (1 case, 1 time period)
Historical Process Research –traces a sequence of events over a number of years (1 case, many time periods) Cross-sectional Comparative Research -- comparing data from one time period between two or more nations (many cases, 1 time period) Comparative Historical Research – longitudinal comparative research (many cases) over a prolonged period of time
Comparative and Historical Research by number of cases and length of time studied How do we understand Comparative Historical Research?
Historical Methods: Historical methods, also known as historiography, are the most common analytic techniques used in the discipline of history. They are generally used to explore either what happened at a particular time and place or what the characteristics of a phenomenon were like at a particular time and place.

Similar to statistical and experimental methods, comparative-historical methods employ comparison as a means of gaining insight into causal determinants. Similar to ethnographic and historical methods, comparative-historical methods explore the characteristics and causes of particular phenomena.
Comparative-historical analysis, however, does not simply combine the methods from other major methodological traditions—none of the major comparative methods is very common in comparative-historical analysis.
As a consequence, comparative-historical researchers commonly avoid statistics and simply focus on causal processes. Additional reasons for the limited use of statistical comparison within the comparative-historical research tradition include the limited availability of historical data needed for appropriate statistical analyses and the small number of cases analyzed by comparative-historical researchers.
Comparative Historical “toolkit”
Besides comparative methods, comparative-historical scholars employ several different types of within-case methods: Ethnography Historical Methods Idiographic Methods Nomothetic Explanations So what does this tool-kit look like?
Well, comparative historical research can be:
Holistic. It is concerned with the context in which events occurred and the interrelations among different events and processes: “how different conditions or parts fit together” (Ragin, 1987:25–26).

Conjunctural. This is because, it is argued, “no cause ever acts except in complex conjunctions with others”(Abbot, 1994:101). Temporal. It becomes temporal by taking into account the related series of events that unfold over time.

So what does this tool-kit look like?
Historically specific. It is likely to be limited to the specific time(s) and place(s) studied, like traditional historical research.



14.      Ethnography (Ethnographic Methods): A type of social scientific method that gains insight into social relations through participant observation, interviews, and the analysis of art, texts, and oral histories. It is commonly used to analyze culture and is the most common method of anthropology.


18.      Basic vs. Applied Research : Basic versus Applied Research Goal of describing, predicting, & explaining fundamental principles of behavior vs. solving real-life problems


21. Quantitative vs. Qualitative research:     Quantitative Research: An Overview
Mathematically based  Often uses survey-based measures to collect data
Often collects data on what is known as a “Likert-scale” a 4-7 point numerical scale which a participant rates agreement  Uses statistical methodology to analyze numerical data  As quantitative research is essentially about collecting numerical
data to explain a particular phenomenon, particular questions seem immediately
suited to being answered using quantitative methods. How many males get a first-class degree at university compared to females? What percentage of teachers and school leaders belong to ethnic minority groups?
Has pupil achievement in English improved in our school district over
time? These are all questions we can look at quantitatively, as the data we
need to collect are already available to us in numerical form. Does this not
severely limit the usefulness of quantitative research though? There are
many phenomena we might want to look at, but which don’t seem to produce
any quantitative data. In fact, relatively few phenomena in education
actually occur in the form of ‘naturally’ quantitative data.
Luckily, we are far less limited than might appear from the above. Many
data that do not naturally appear in quantitative form can be collected in
a quantitative way. We do this by designing research instruments aimed
specifically at converting phenomena that don’t naturally exist in quantitative
participants, using experimental methods, or very structured psychometric questionnaires.


4. Finally, while quantitative methods are best for looking at cause and
effect (causality, as it is known), qualitative methods are more suited to
looking at the meaning of particular events or circumstances.

9) Advantages and Disadvantages: Qualitative
 Qualitative Advantages:  Appreciates research participant’s individuality
Provides insider view of research question Less structured than quantitative approach
Qualitative Disadvantages: Not always appropriate to generalize results to larger population
Time consuming Difficult to test a hypothesis Proponents of qualitative research argue that such methodology see’s people as individuals, attempting to gather their subjective experience of an event. This can provide a unique insider view of the research question  Through the qualitative approach, which is less structured than a quantitative approach, unexpected results and insights can occur.


In summary, to the extent that any study concerns itself with generalizing, case studies tend to generalize to other situations (on the basis of analytic claims), whereas surveys and other quantitative methods tend to generalize to populations (on the basis of statistical claims).


ccording to the lectures, and the book. I learned that, in the social sciences there is no best kind of research.  I think researchers probably use several methods in order to conduct research. Empirical, all information is based on observation.  Objectivity, Observations is verified by others.  Systematic, observations are made in a step-by-step fashion.  Controlled, potentially confusing factors are eliminated.  Public, built on previous research, open to critique and replication, building towards theories.
 It dependents what king of research or for what purpose you are researching. For example in social science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. It can be classified into disciplines such s psychology, sociology, and economics.  The society very much is more for the “collective”.  I think, using the scientific method is imperative for any kind of research. . 
1.      When we consider the advantages and disadvantages of laboratory vs. field research, are there any others that come to mind that were not outlined in lecture?
A)     Field Research/Ethnography: Participant observation is based on living among the people under study for a period of time, could be months or maybe years, and gathering data through continuous involvement in their lives and activities. The ethnographer begins systematic observation and keeps notes, in which the significant events of each day are recorded along with informants and interpretations. These demands are met through two major research techniques participant observation and key informant interviewing.  An example would be the one on the video that Maria has been spending several months with Steve a drug user, and the ethical problem come now, the participant do not realize that their behavior is being observed. Obviously (there is no consent) cannot give voluntary informed consent to be involved in the study.  Steve confesses that he is HIV positive and his partner does not know, there is a confidentiality issue.
2. Are there some things we can do in the field that we just cannot do in the lab and vise-versa?
A)        I learned that clear advantage of laboratory experiments over field experiments is that it is much easier to obtain large amounts of very detailed information from participants in the laboratory. An important reason why laboratory experiments are more artificial than field experiments is because the participants in laboratory experiments are aware that their behavior. One of the advantages of field experiments over laboratory experiments is that the behavior of the participants is often more of their normal behavior. The greatest advantage of field experiments over laboratory experiments is that they are less artificial
 3.      What are your ideas as researchers-in-training for accounting for the disadvantages of each and what problems might you foresee arising with your idea?
A)     I learned that, the method of investigation used most often by psychologists is the experimental method. Some of the advantages of the experimental method are common to both laboratory and field experiments. I would have to know reliability and validity and field vs. laboratory research. To avoid any confounding variables. These are variables that are manipulated/allowed to vary systematically along with the independent variable. The presence of any confounding variables can destroy the experiment, because it prevents from being able to interpret our findings.
Four main elements:
 Historical Events Research focuses on one short historical period (1 case, 1 time period)
 Historical Process Research –traces a sequence of events over a number of years (1 case, many time periods)
Cross-sectional Comparative Research -- comparing data from one time period between two or more nations (many cases, 1 time period)
 Comparative Historical Research – longitudinal comparative research (many cases) over a prolonged period of time.  Comparative and Historical Research by number of cases and length of time studied.
 What are some of the benefits and negatives of the Case Study method. When compared to other types of research reviewed in the course thus far?  Can you think of some specific examples where the case study method might be preferable?
 The Case Study Method, Case study is a” Strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence” (Robson, 1993, p. 146). Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.  Depending on the case study   it says whether the research is field or laboratory research, we always loose valuable information about individual variation when we try to collect the information of the experiences, emotions, and behaviors into common experiences that we can measure numerically and generalize across a population. If I understand correctly the lecture, we cannot generalize from a Case Study, must be used three things: Descriptive, Exploratory, and Explanatory.
Consider generalizing the results of research done on a small sample to the general population.
I think I need to consider the Type of design chosen:  Questions the conditions under which the findings be generalized deals with the ability to generalize the findings outside the study to other populations and environments. 
Purpose of Research Design: Provides the plan or blueprint for testing research questions and hypotheses. Involves structure and strategy to maintain control and intervention fidelity. Accuracy:  Accomplished through the theoretical framework and literature review. All aspects of the study systematically and logically follow form the research questions. Time: Is there enough time for completion of the study. Control: Achieved with steps taken by the searcher to hold the conditions of the study uniform and avoid or decrease the effect of intervening, extraneous, or mediating variables of the dependent variable or outcome. Ensures that every subject receiving the intervention of treatment receive the identical intervention or treatment.
what are some of the benefits and negatives of qualitative and quantitative research: Variables that occur during the study that interfere with or influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Intervening and mediating variables are processes that occur during the study.
Objectivity can be achieved form a thorough review of the literature and the development of a theoretical framework.
Instrumentation: changes in equipment used to make measurements or changes in observational techniques may cause measurements to vary between participants related to  treatment fidelity.
Controlling Extraneous Variables Using a homogeneous sample Using consistent data-collection procedures- constancy.  A homogeneous sample is one in which the researcher chooses participants who are alike – for example, participants who belong to the same subculture or have similar characteristics.  Homogeneous sampling can be of particular use for conducting focus groups because individuals are generally more comfortable sharing their thoughts and ideas with other individuals who they perceive to be similar to them. Patton, M. (2001). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. 
when thinking of this,  Could one said to be superior to the other, or are they context specific?
  the independent variable is: the variable that the researcher hypothesizes will have an effect on the dependent variable Usually manipulated (experimental study)
The independent variable is: manipulated by means of a program, treatment, or intervention done to only one group in the study (experimental group ) The control group gets the standard treatment or no treatment.
The dependent variable is a factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. Not manipulated and pressured to vary with changes in the independent variable The variable the researcher is interested in explaining. 
Randomization Each subject in the study has an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or the experimental group.
Assumes that any important intervening, extraneous, or mediating variable will be equally distributed between the groups, minimizing variance and decreasing selection bias.
Testing:  Taking the same test more than once can influence the participant’s responses the next time test is taken. 

Mixed-Methods Designs - questionnaire) and qualitative (for example, a number of case studies) methods. Mixed-methods research is a flexible approach, where the research design is determined by what we want to find out rather than by any predetermined epistemological position. In mixed-methods research, qualitative or quantitative components can predominate, or both can have equal status.
 

Mixed-Methods Designs - questionnaire) and qualitative (for example, a number of case studies) methods. Mixed-methods research is a flexible approach, where the research design is determined by what we want to find out rather than by any predetermined epistemological position. In mixed-methods research, qualitative or quantitative components can predominate, or both can have equal status What, then, do we do if we want to look at both breadth and depth, or at both causality and meaning? In those cases, it is best to use a so-called mixed-methods design, in which we use both quantitative (for example, a questionnaire) and qualitative (for example, a number of case studies)
methods. Mixed-methods research is a flexible approach, where the  research design is determined by what we want to find out rather than by
any predetermined epistemological position. In mixed-methods research,



Jean Piaget stage of Concrete Operations:
Ages Seven through Eleven
Jean Piaget devoted his life to how thoughts were transformed into a body of knowledge. His theories of cognitive development were inspired by observations of his three children from infancy. Piaget believed that children were active participants in learning. He viewed children as busy, motivated explorers whose thinking developed as they acted directly on the environment using their eyes, ears, and hands. According to Piaget, between
 · The stage of concrete operations begins when the child is able to perform mental operations. Piaget defines a mental operation as an interiorized action, an action performed in the mind. Mental operations permit the child to think about physical actions that he or she previously performed. The preoperational child could count from one to ten, but the actual understanding that one stands for one object only appears in the stage of concrete operations.

 The primary characteristic of concrete operational thought is its reversibility. The child can mentally reverse the direction of his or her thought. A child knows that something that he can add, he can also subtract. He or she can trace her route to school and then follow it back home, or picture where she has left a toy without a haphazard exploration of the entire house. A child at this stage is able to do simple mathematical operations. Operations are labeled “concrete” because they apply only to those objects that are physically present.
  Conservation is the major acquisition of the concrete operational stage. Piaget defines conservation as the ability to see that objects or quantities remain the same despite a change in their physical appearance. Children learn to conserve such quantities as number, substance (mass), area, weight, and volume; though they may not achieve all concepts at the same time.
STAGE THREE: The Concrete Operational Stage
 QUICK SUMMARY: Children have schemata (cognitive structures that contain pre-existing ideas of the world), which are constantly changing. Schemata constantly undergo adaptation, through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. When seeing new objects there is a state of tension, and a child will attempt to assimilate the information to see if it fits into prior schemata. If this fails, the information must be accommodated by either adding new schemata or modifying the existing ones to accommodate the information. By balancing the use of assimilation and accommodation, an equilibrium is created, reducing cognitive tension (equilibration).

Focus on “language rather than numbers”
“Embraces “intersubjectivity” or how people may construct meaning…”
Focus on the individual and their real lived experience
Qualitative methods have much to offer when we need to explore people’s feelings or ask participants to reflect on their experiences. As was noted above, some of the earliest psychological thinkers of the late 19th century and early 20th century may be regarded as proto-qualitative researchers. Examples include the ‘founding father’ of psycho-analysis, Sigmund Freud, who worked in Vienna (late 19th century – to mid 20th century), recorded and published numerous case-studies and then engaged in analysis, postulation and
theorizing on the basis of his observations, and the pioneering Swiss developmental psychologist, Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) who meticulously observed and recorded his children’s developing awareness and engagement with their social world. They were succeeded by many other authors from the 1940s onwards who adopted qualitative methods and may be regarded as contributors to the development of qualitative methodologies through their emphasis of the importance of the idiographic and use of case studies (Allport,1946; Nicholson, 1997)1 . This locates the roots of qualitative thinking in the long-standing debate between empiricist and rationalistic schools of thought, and also in social constructionism (Gergen, 1985; King & Horrock, pp. 6 – 24)2.  So, what exactly is qualitative research? A practical definition points to methods that use  language, rather than numbers, and an interpretative, naturalistic approach. Qualitative research embraces the concept of intersubjectivity usually understood to refer to how people may agree or construct meaning: perhaps to a shared understanding, emotion, feeling, or
perception of a situation , in order to interpret the social world they inhabit (Nerlich, 2004,  pp. 18). Norman Denzin and Yvonna Lincoln define qualitative researchers as people who  usually work in the ‘real’ world of lived experience, often in a natural setting, rather than a laboratory based experimental approach. The qualitative researcher tries to make sense of social phenomena and the meanings people bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)3. In qualitative research, it is acknowledged that the researcher is an integral part of the
process and who may reflect on her/his own influence and experience in the research process.4 The qualitative researcher accepts that s/he is not ‘neutral’. Instead s/he puts herself in the position of the participant or 'subject' and attempts to understand how the world is from that person's perspective. As this process is re-iterated, hypotheses begin to emerge, which are 'tested' against the data of further experiences e.g. people's narratives.  One of the key differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches is apparent

here: the quantitative approach states the hypothesis from the outset, (i.e. a ‘top down’  approach), whereas in qualitative research the hypothesis or research question, is refined  and developed during the process. This may be thought of as a ‘bottom-up’ or emergent  approach, They compare these to assumptions about the world, the knowledge  produced and the role of the researcher (King & Horrocks, 2010).


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